Wei Dong Gao, M.B., M.D., M.S., Ph.D.

• Associate Professor of Anesthesiology and Critical Care Medicine

https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/profiles/results/directory/profile/0016624/wei-dong-gao

Most 60 (54 percent) also say they try to make full use of their 50 benefits allergy testing gloucester discount rhinocort 200mcg online, getting all the tests allergy testing virginia beach purchase rhinocort 200 mcg on line, assessments and doctor visits available to them allergy symptoms body aches discount 100 mcg rhinocort otc. Conversely allergy medicine on plane buy rhinocort 100 mcg with visa, 46 percent say they 40 use their Medicare benefits only when they are having a 30 problem or need medical care allergy medicine with adderall discount rhinocort 200mcg otc. This represents an important opportunity is detected (61 percent versus 57 percent) allergy vertigo treatment discount 100 mcg rhinocort free shipping. With four of five seniors indicating dementia care experts with health care providers. Studies of these programs, in clinical trials or other forms of research as an important which involved small sample sizes, had mixed results. Food and Drug diagnosis and disclosure process in all care settings, Administration to assist clinicians in the diagnosis of particularly in primary care. As new diagnostic tools become available for clinical practice, physician and consumer attitudes and practices with respect to brief cognitive assessments may also evolve. Trends of Hope Despite significant challenges to improving brief cognitive assessments in the primary care setting, there are a number of encouraging signs that the United States is moving toward better and more numerous assessments, and better awareness of cognitive decline. Census Bureau 7,901 people from the Framingham Study who had survived report for July 2018. The model was updated by the Lewin Group in telephone usage; the second stage of this weight balanced January 2015 (updating previous model) and June 2015 the sample to estimated U. Detailed A weight for the caregiver sample accounted for the information on the model, its long-term projections and its increased likelihood of female and white respondents in methodology are available at alz. Sampling weights were also created of the data presented in this report, the following parameters of to account for the use of two supplemental list samples. The the model were changed relative to the methodology outlined at resulting interviews comprise a probability-based, nationally alz. This using the seasonally adjusted average prices for medical care is slightly lower than the total resulting from multiplying services from all urban consumers. Medicare Current Beneficiary Survey Report: these data come hours of unpaid care (18. A survey of 17,000 employees of a respondent if the beneficiary is not able to respond. Fifty-one percent had a primary medical specialty of Figures pertain only to Medicare beneficiaries age 65 and older. Additional structured assessments used by primary care this question were accepted. Diagnosis of cognitive impairment may be stigmatizing (25 percent); Early diagnosis does not provide benefits (19 percent). One reason that the per-person costs estimated by for performing an assessment (21 percent); Follow-up care for Hurd and colleagues are lower than those reported in Facts diagnosed patients would strain primary care resources (17%). Lack of confidence or expertise: Disclosing results is difficult (44 percent); Specialists are better equipped to discuss A22. The survey was offered in English and Business Concerns: Lack of time during visits (40 percent); Spanish and as either an online Web survey or a phone survey. Follow-up care for diagnosed patients would strain primary care the 1,954 respondents had the following demographics: resources (24 percent); Lack of financial reimbursement for time 55 percent were female and 45 percent were male. Difficulties with Patients: percent were age 75 and older, 33 percent were age 65-69, and the patient refusal rate for follow up testing is high (44 percent); 26 percent were age 70-74. Thirty-eight percent resided in the Managing patients with cognitive impairment is difficult or time South, 22 percent in the West, 21 percent in the Midwest, and consuming (36 percent). Forty-two percent had an annual household income below $40,000, 30 percent had an income A26. Additional reasons seniors believe early diagnosis is important: between $40,000 and $74,999, and 28 percent had an income Additional responses, ranked by the percentage of participants above $75,000. Seventy-seven percent of respondents identified who selected that choice: It allows for earlier treatment of as white and non-Hispanic, 9 percent as black and non-Hispanic, symptoms with medication or other interventions (93 percent); and 8 percent as Hispanic. Seventy-six percent were retired, and A person can begin health measures to preserve existing cognitive 17 percent were working. The primary care physician survey was function for as long as possible (92 percent); It helps to understand conducted by Versta Research from December 10, 2018, through what is happening (91 percent); It allows the person and their family January 8, 2019. Of the 1,000 respondents, 68 percent spent less to plan for the future (91 percent); It allows the person to be tested than 90 percent of their professional time in direct patient care, and treated for reversible causes of thinking or memory problems while 32 percent spent between 90 and 100 percent of their (91 percent); It helps a person address potential safety issues time in direct patient care. On average, 49 percent of their ahead of time (90 percent); It encourages the person and his or patients were age 18-64 and 42 percent were age 65 and her family to seek support and education (89 percent); It allows for older. Thirty-two percent had been in practice for 15-24 years, more time to assemble medical and caregiving teams (83 percent); 31 percent for fewer than 15 years, 24 percent for 25-34 years, It relieves concerns about other things that might be wrong and 14 percent for 35 years or more. Eighty-four percent had (76 percent); It allows the person to participate in clinical trials and office-based practices, and 14 percent had hospital-based other research (71 percent). Participants were allowed to select more than one answer, so percentages do not add up to 100. Dement Geriatr Cogn analysis in young adults at genetic risk for autosomal dominant Disord Extra 2013;3:320-32. Brain disease, Lewy body, vascular and frontotemporal dementia, and 2009;132:1355-65. Stages of the neuropathology of probable Alzheimer disease and mild pathologic process in Alzheimer disease: age categories from 1 cognitive impairment. Introduction to the recommendations from of effectiveness from randomised controlled trials. Neuropathology of cognitively normal cognitive decline, mild cognitive impairment, and clinical elderly. Physical activity interventions in preventing cognitive Neurology 2009;72(17):1519-25. Cold Dementia from Alzheimer disease and mixed pathologies in the Spring Harb Perspect Med 2012;2(3):a006312. Parental family history of dementia in the United States (2010-2050) estimated using the 2010 in relation to subclinical brain disease and dementia risk. Maternal dementia age at onset in relation to association between apolipoprotein E genotype and Alzheimer amyloid burden in non-demented elderly offspring. Risk of dementia among white and African American Summary of the evidence on modifiable risk factors for relatives of patients with Alzheimer disease. Risk of dementia among relatives of older age with cognitive decline and incident dementia. Heavy smoking in midlife and long-term risk of Alzheimer Appendices 73 disease and vascular dementia. Mid and late-life obesity: Risk of associated with cognition and dementia: Systematic review and dementia in the Cardiovascular Health Cognition Study. Body mass index and risk of dementia: Analysis of Meta-analysis of prospective studies. Physical activity pre and post-dementia: English and adjusted forecast of dementia prevalence in the United Longitudinal Study of Ageing. Dietary patterns and risk of dementia: the midlife and late-life as a risk factor for dementia: A meta Three-City Cohort Study. Association between midlife vascular risk factors and in adults: A qualitative evaluation and systematic review of estimated brain amyloid deposition. Rosenberg A, Ngandu T, Rusanen M, Antikainen R, Backman L, brain aging and cognitive decline. Associations between midlife vascular risk factors and global action and effective implementation. J Alzheimers Dis 25-year incident dementia in the Atherosclerosis Risk in 2018;64(s1):S191-8. The Association of early life factors and declining incidence and future risk of cognitive impairment and dementia: Systematic rates of dementia in an elderly population of African Americans. Effects of cognitive training interventions with older application of the reserve concept. Whitepaper: Defining and investigating Cognitive activities delay onset of memory decline in persons cognitive reserve, brain reserve, and brain maintenance. Accessed engagement in social and leisure activities is associated with a December 18, 2018.

Mediating variables may be observed measures used in a statistical analy medial forebrain bundle sis allergic pink eye discount rhinocort master card, or they may be theoretical constructs that n allergy medicine like singular rhinocort 200 mcg online. One of the diffcul which constitute the most important pleasure ties of research on mediating variables is the centers in the brain allergy medicine reactions purchase 100mcg rhinocort otc, which lie on each side of development of accurate measures of theoret the hypothalamus and connect the ventral ical mediating constructs allergy treatment muscle testing discount rhinocort 100mcg free shipping. Here the mediating variable provides medial geniculate nucleus an interpretation of the relation between two n allergy symptoms 8 days cheap rhinocort online american express. Either of a pair of bumps on the side of the variables by elucidating a process by which thalamus which relay auditory information the initial variable is related to the mediating from the inferior colliculus to the auditory variable and the mediating variable is related cortex allergy treatment nose purchase rhinocort 100 mcg with visa. Stimulus-organism response models provided the frst examples median of mediating variables in psychology. The median is a measure of central ten models hypothesized that a mediating vari dency that is located at the center of a dis able in the organism translates the stimulus to tribution of scores that have been ranked in the response. For example, the median in mediate how exposure to information affects the distribution of ages 18, 18, 19, 23, and 24 behavior. More recent applications of mediat is 19 because it occurs at the midpoint of the ing variables are in treatment and prevention group of values. Half the values occur above studies, where a manipulation is designed to and half occur below 19. If the distribution change a mediating variable hypothesized to has an even number of scores, the median be causally related to the outcome variable. For the mediating variable is changed by the treat example, the median of 18, 18, 19, 23, 24, ment program and the mediating variable is 301 medical model membrane truly related to the outcome variable, then the 2. For tion of a subject or an area of thought of a example, a prevention program that changes philosophic or scientifc nature. A mediating process may consist of a long chain of variables that medulla oblongata lead from the initial to the outcome variable. Mediation relations may to many brain centers and is involved in auto differ at different time lags; for example, a nomic processes such as respiration, heart mediation relation may be observed for daily beat, and blood pressure. The statistical assessment of mediating megalomania variables consists of statistical tests of the rela n. It is characteristic of levels of the mediating variable helps clarify mania, extreme narcissism, and paranoia. An ovate sense receptor concentrated in the vincing evidence for a mediating variable, skin of the genitals, fngertips, lips, nipples, including experiments, statistical analysis, palms, and soles of the feet, which are sensi clinical observations, and qualitative methods. An archaic term for a depressed mood or a in non-Western cultures, which understand depressive disorder. A hormone produced when the pineal gland breaks down serotonin during the meditation night which is involved in bodily cycles such as n. Any process of training the mind through the sleep-wake and other diurnal cycles and focusing on the senses, an object, or an inter seasonal changes in physiology. There are two inhibit sexual development in males before basic types of meditation: mindfulness medi puberty and affects the menstrual cycle in tations, which seek to increase attention to females. A layer of usually fbrous boundary tissue consciousness; both types take many forms. Any difference in electric charge between the inside and outside of a cell or other mem memory, episodic brane. Aspects of memory that can be recalled at will from both episodic and semantic mem memory ory, as opposed to implicit memory for such n. Recollections of events that have not actu and different storage processes including that ally occurred. In the retrieval of information necessary for remembering a specifc event, and recoding into a form used in verbal com knowledge in general, and knowledge of how munication, there are often inclusions of to do things like see, move in a coordinated information which is not factually true, and way, and ride a bicycle. A specifc recollec in some cases there is little or no truth to the tion of an experience or some factual infor information in some memories. The hypothetical storage system or can be infuenced by more recent experience, systems for information of different kinds. A hypothesized form into which sensory claim have been suggested or implanted by and other information is transformed for therapists or other persons. The process which underlies the ability to that seem unusually clear and detailed, such recall and verbalize information. An archaic experimental device used in of these memories is unfounded, as the details memory experiments which consisted of a of such memories have often been found to rotating cylinder with a cover which could be erroneous. This function has been replaced by com store for visual information which allows the puter displays. A hypothesized very-short-term memory for memory, implicit sound which allows storage of auditory infor n. The storage and use of information which mation long enough for the auditory system to is not easily recollected and stated such as how make sense out of it. It is often used synonymously with short brain which lasts indefnitely and has no limit term memory. The capacity to indicate accurately Mendel, who frst noticed that traits are whether or not a particular item was included inherited as whole and there are mathemat in a previously learned list, which is an eas ical relationships governing dominant and ier task than recalling the items of such a recessive characteristics. The capacity to recognize a previously encountered face, person, object, event, situa meninges tion, or piece of information. The three membrane layers which cover the brain and spinal column consisting of memory, reconstructive a fbrous outer dura mater, a middle layer n. A form of recollection in which some parts called the arachnoid membrane, and the thin of the information recalled are accurate and and transparent inner layer called the pia some parts of the information are inserted mater. The storage of general information not cycles, which usually occurs over a period tied to specifc events such as how many stars of several years called perimenopause and are in the fag of the United States or what the is complete around age 50. The length of a list of items an individual uterus engorge with blood and prepare to can recall without error immediately after receive a fertilized ovum, and then both are presentation, which, for normal adults, is in shed through the openings of the uterus and the range of seven plus or minus two. This monthly fers from trying to recall items from longer cycle is characteristic of humans and great lists, which is often less than seven. A hypothesized information storage sys which is an element of some criminal statutes tem containing the information necessary for in some states. Unlike mamma of mental processes by asking subjects to cre lian females with the more common estrous ate mental images. Thus sexual Mental Measurements Yearbook receptivity is not bound to hormone levels or n. The cycle has effects on sexual desire books containing reviews of most published and on a range of other behaviors, including psychological tests and a large but noncom some cognitive tasks, but these effects are very prehensive set of references for publications subtle. The theoretical mental structure corre fertility and infertility in which an ovum is sponding to information processing models readied for fertilization and released by the of perception, memory, thinking, speech, and ovary, the lining of the fallopian tubes and other mental functions. Mild retardation is often the quencies and usually do not involve the shed low end of the normal curve of intelligence; ding of blood and the uterine lining. Persons in this range are usually able to function in routine lifestyles but are low mental disorder in educational attainment and intellectual n. A recognizable pattern of personal distress, function independently but can learn daily abnormal emotional reactions and behavior, hygiene and perform routine jobs under cognitive impairment, and an increased risk supervision. Persons with emotional development of most organisms this level of defciency usually have signif and the maintenance of cognitive function cant brain defciencies and usually have poor ing in human old age. The observation that familiar things tend sive habit training; and will die without con to be liked better than unfamiliar things stant nursing care. There is an inference that the mind brain between the spinal cord and hindbrain creates a visual image and rotates it to arrive on one end and the cerebrum on the other, is at a correct answer based on the observation a major pathway for sensory and motor infor that the time it takes to respond correctly is mation. It is divided into the tectum, which proportional to the angle through which the contains the inferior and superior colliculi, object has to be rotated in order to make the which are major sensory pathways, and the correct judgment. The temporary activation of a particular mesolimbic system mental network in preparation for coping n. This both bodies in the tegmentum of the midbrain and makes routine tasks easier and makes percep axon terminals in the limbic system which is tion or use of things outside the activated set believed to be a main route for pleasure and more diffcult. It includes parts of the nucleus accumbens, amygdala, and olfactory mental state tubercle. A synthetic addicting drug of the opiate sizes of numerous studies are combined into a family which is relatively long-acting and distribution of effect sizes used to gauge the often used as a substitute for heroin in treat likely size of the effect in general. The most potent drug in the amphet own thought processes and knowledge which amine family, which acts as a strong central allows conscious changes in mental strategy nervous system stimulant, mimicking the toward solving problems and understanding effects of norepinephrine and dopamine. Methamphetamine raises heart rate and blood pressure, suppresses immune function meta contrast and sleep, increases blood fow to skeletal n. A form of backward masking in which a tar muscles and away from the digestive tract and get stimulus, usually a dot, is presented briefy teeth, suppresses appetite, and produces feel and then quickly followed by a nearby mask ings of energy and well-being, and, in high ing stimulus, often a circle around the dot, doses, euphoria. Prolonged use can result in which has the effect of masking or distort anxiety, panic, acute paranoia, dental prob ing perception of the original stimulus. Amphetamines are demonstrates that backward masking is a cog widely and illegally used for staying awake nitive, not a sensory process. A memory technique in which items to be is applied to another word or idea that it does remembered are associated with particular not actually denote in order to convey a mean places or parts of places. The branch of philosophy concerned cedes that the mind exists and that mental with frst principles or ultimate meaning. The study of the basic principles and basic principles of skepticism and open approaches of psychology. These hypotheses are then mesencephalon) forms with the pons and the tested by further systematic observations, and medulla oblongata the brainstem. The these results are then used to generate further foor of the midbrain is known as the tegmen theories which can be tested, and the cycle tum. Methylphenidate hydrochloride is a cen the brainstem and spinal cord are found in the tral nervous system stimulant which works ventral surface of the midbrain, known as the by stimulating release of norepinephrine cerebral peduncles. The midbrain also con and dopamine and blocking their reuptake tains the substantia nigra, a major component in the synaptic cleft. An extremely brief facial expression of inferior colliculi are the principal midbrain emotion, often appearing for only a frac nucleus of the auditory pathway. These were originally dis See also colliculus covered by the psychologist Paul Ekman as a sign of concealed or repressed emotions. The portion of the auditory system from associated with deception, although there the eardrum to the oval window at the start are many times in which microexpressions of the cochlea, which includes the ossicles, occur because of concealed feelings that are which transfer and amplify sound, and the not necessarily lies. Contemporary work with eustachian tube, which leads from the middle microexpressions has shown that there are ear to the nasopharynx and equalizes the reliable individual differences in the ability to pressure inside and outside the eardrum. A very brief period of sleep in a person who 1963 at Yale University, demonstrated that appears to be awake, usually lasting from 1 to well-adjusted individuals can be driven to about 30 seconds. This tends to occur during surprising acts of cruelty because of pres periods of fatigue when the person is attempt sure from authority fgures. The experimen ing to perform boring or monotonous tasks tal paradigm consisted of a naive participant such as driving a car or working as a guard asked to deliver increasingly painful electric and is exacerbated by alcohol and other shocks (none was ever actually given) to a depressant drugs. Despite audible sounds of discomfort and midbrain protests from the confederate, the experi n. Brain area situated between the diencepha menter repeatedly demanded that the partic lons (rostrally) and the pons (caudally). Although 308 military psychology mindfulness/mindlessness most observers believed that only a very few believed to exist before the birth of and to people would continue until the end of the continue after the death of the body. A experiment, 65% of participants delivered particular kind of mentality, as in the mind the full 450-volt shock levels in the original of an assassin or the mind of a genius. In follow-up studies, Milgram manip explanatory entity used to account for the ulated a number of factors and found that accomplishment of tasks not accounted for subtle contextual changes in the procedure otherwise. An emergent property of increasing and confederate, removing the experimenter brain complexity. A concept extensively debated by the ratio military psychology nalist philosophers of the 17th century which n. Today, the concept is revised military settings as well as dealing with men as the mind/brain problem, since the brain is tal health problems within the military and now recognized as the cognitive center of the especially combat-related stress disorders. At one pole, the monistic view is of one physical structure for the brain and mind, ver Miller Analogies Test sus a dualistic nonphysical entity, the mind, n. This has commonly been used in gradu are identical, being merely differing and com ate school admissions. In other words, mind is an aspect of the activ Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory ity of the brain. The central questions includes 13 scales for personality disorders, of the mind/body problem for the psycholog 10 clinical syndrome scales, 3 modifying indi ical practitioner are How do mind and body ces, and a 3-item validity scale that is of ques interrelate in health and in sickness A general term for mental, as opposed mindfulness/mindlessness to physical, processes and contents. Mindfulness is an active state of mind Consciousness considered as an entity inde characterized by novel distinction draw pendent of physical conditions sometimes ing.

A belief that the soul has left the body allergy symptoms with cough rhinocort 200mcg without a prescription, surveys resulting in apathy allergy medicine erectile dysfunction buy rhinocort, fatigue allergy symptoms alcohol best order rhinocort, headaches allergy shots where to inject order rhinocort on line, diges n allergy symptoms achiness buy rhinocort 200mcg cheap. Surveys involve systematically gathering tive diffculties allergy shots epipen order rhinocort 100 mcg line, weight loss, muscle aches, information by asking questions. This typically involve questioning individuals is a psychological disorder usually found but can also involve organizations or insti among persons from Latin American coun tutions. Survey questions can be asked in tries including emigrants from those coun telephone or in-person interviews or via self tries. Also called chibih, espanto, pasmo, perdida administered questionnaires completed on del alma, and tripa ida. Surveys typically involve gathering data from a sub syllabary sample of a larger population (often with the n. A syllabary is a phonetic writing system goal of surveying a representative sample). Any statistical procedure for estimating the time until an event such as death or the fail syllogism ure of a machine occurs. A form of deductive reasoning in which a ability theory in engineering and duration major and a minor proposition assumed to be analysis in economics. A slogan describing an aspect of evolution logism, and only 24 are held to be true in the by natural selection in which the organisms feld of logic. The term was coined by Herbert Spencer and used to justify cruelty and indif symbiosis ference to others in Victorian society and n. It is most commonly used to describe the situation in which both species survivor guilt beneft from living together as humans ben n. A sense of remorse for the fate of people eft from having Lactobacillus in their gut who die and of failure to have done enough to which allows them to digest milk, while drink prevent their deaths in persons who have lived ing milk feeds the Lactobacillus. The term may through a life-threatening situation in which also include situations in which there is ben others did not. This is common among those eft to only one of the species involved and it is 530 symbol sympathetic nervous system either harmful or neutral to the other species symbolization and some situations in which it is harmful to n. A theory of perception that suggests that In psychoanalysis, an image which represents people in Western cultures focus more on something else, as a bear may represent a representations on paper than do people in feared father or a cigar may represent a penis. Any test that requires subjects to translate one symbol-digit test set of symbols into another, as in the symbol n. Apraxia observed in patients with anterior correct translations within a fxed time inter left hemisphere damage associated with right val is the measure of ability. Symbolic interactionism is an intellectual taneously two different motor defects: pare tradition in sociology and social psychology. Inspired by the early writings of Blumer, Sympathetic apraxia is frequently found in Cooley, and Mead, this tradition seeks to motor aphasias. The portion of the autonomic nervous sys tions these actions have for social interac tem which tends to prepare the body for action tions. Symbolic interactionism emphasizes when aroused and is opposed to the parasym negotiation and transformation of mean pathetic nervous system, which calms the ings in the social interactions through the body and prepares it for rest and digestion. From this perspective, self-knowledge sympathetic nervous system is constructed by appraising what other n. The process of encoding experience or blood fow to skeletal muscles is increased data into abstract forms in the mind or in a and epinephrine levels are raised, leading to computer program. Words and numbers are an increase in heart rate and blood sugar lev two forms of symbolic representations, and els, as well as piloerection (goose bumps). Some of these neurons also larization in the axon causes vesicles holding release acetylcholine to muscarinic metabotro chemical neurotransmitters to move to the pic receptor sites, leading to a slow response or cell wall and release their transmitter chemi even inhibition of response, depending on the cal into the cleft between the two cells. The narrow gap between an axon terminal which may be a sign of an underlying dis and the postsynaptic membrane of a dendrite ease or disorder. Anything that is taken as flled with salty water across which neurotrans an indication of something else, as a rising mitters must foat in order to propagate neu national debt may be a symptom of war. The narrow cleft between an axon terminal ing disorder or disease is produced by the and the postsynaptic membrane of a dendrite disorder or disease or a reaction to it. In flled with salty water across which neu psychoanalysis, the expression of the anxiety rotransmitters must foat in order to propa from a repressed impulse in a behavioral or gate neural impulses. In psychoanalysis, the appearance of a new brane of a neuron or muscle specialized to complaint or expression of repressed anxiety react to chemical neurotransmitters. The active process by which proteins in pre synaptic membranes remove neurotransmit synapse ter chemicals from the water in the synaptic n. The bulbous end of an axon at the junction mitters foat to propagate nerve impulses with another neuron. The process of chemical transmission of eye), mean that no two words can be perfectly an electric impulse across the water-flled gap synonymous. A brief lapse in consciousness (commonly posed by Henry Head, who suggested a four called fainting). The cause is a transient loss fold classifcation of aphasia into verbal, of cerebral oxygenation, which may result syntactic, nominal, and semantic. Syntactic from a variety of external and/or internal aphasia in general corresponds to what is usu events. Patients with of the vagus nerve, which affects parasym this type of language defect have diffculties pathetic control, slowing the heart rate and in using the morphosyntactic rules of the decreasing the availability of oxygen to the language and apraxia of speech. Extreme temperature, emotional stress, or hypoglycemia may also induce syn syntactic processing cope. Syntactic processing, or parsing, is the pro mized by lying down fat or by sitting with the cess of recovering syntactic structure from head between the knees. The syntactic processor must deter use of an ammonia inhalant capsule may mine the hierarchical relations between these revive a person who is fainting or has just lexical items. A sensory experience resulting from stimu grounded on limitations imposed by the cog lation of a different body part or a different nitive architecture, including working mem sense from the one experienced by the sub ory limitations. In such sentences, the initial analysis built by the syntactic processor (here, taking raced to synonym be the main verb of the sentence) turns out n. Two words with similar or identical mean to be incorrect (raced is really the participle of ings are synonyms. For example, volume and an omitted verb in a reduced relative clause; tome are synonyms for the word book; student cf. Garden path sentences are diffcult to pro Arguably, details of the origins of words, cess because their correct structure violates a as well as their additional senses. Instead, syntactic relation computer programming, such as C++, which ships are hierarchical: the two adjacent words enables simulation of concurrent processes dates Beatrice are related in a way that Augustine including communication between the dates are not. First, system justi cation theory by the application of phrase structure rules, n. Societies differ in the manner and extent the syntax generates basic sentence struc of differentiation between groups and the tures consisting of a subject (noun phrase) forms of inequality that prevail. Social institu and a predicate (verb phrase), as well as any tions and hierarchies are maintained in part obligatory heads. System justifcation refers to the social direct object noun phrases or prepositional psychological tendency to defend, justify, and phrases). This goal is a powerful ciples which license the movement of constitu determinant of thoughts, feelings, and behav ents within sentences, to obtain constructions iors, because it satisfes several social and psy such as questions (Who does Augustine date From the perspective of the disadvantaged, synthetic language justifying the system perpetuates their own n. An artifcial language such as those deprivation and therefore works against used in computer programs, as opposed to their personal and collective interests. People natural languages, which have evolved in and system justify because attaining this goal are spoken by persons of particular cultures. In linguistics, a language which tends to anxiety, guilt, dissonance, discomfort, and express multiple meanings with a single word, uncertainty that result from being part of as opposed to isolating languages, in which an unequal and possibly unjust system. The there is a single meaning per word although net result of system justifcation is social and in practice languages vary along a continuum political acquiescence. A therapeutic procedure used to lessen processes into component parts which can be phobic and other anxious reactions involving modeled by a computer program, as is com learning relaxation techniques followed by mon in cognitive psychology. A supercomputer that comprises 1,100 ily therapy, and group dynamics in which Apple Power Mac G5 computers, which was the functions and patterns of interaction the frst supercomputer to achieve a speed of of the parts are the focus of analysis and 10 terafops, in 2003. A prohibition against ple without verbal, obvious, or overt efforts at particular behaviors, things, or persons based transferring the information, as in reaching on religious or moral grounds although some an unspoken agreement. Information possessed by a person or other the property of Madam Pele, who will cause organism of which the possessor is not aware misfortune for anyone who removes them. Term originated by the 17th-century philoso tactical self-enhancement pher John Locke. The idea that people of different cultures is born with its mind/brain a total blank slate, all self-enhance but choose to do so in differ upon which is written its life experience. This position postulates that nurture, sure, texture, vibration, temperature, and not nature. Of or relating to the sense of touch or nature and nurture are inextricably interwo contact with the skin. Any of several arrangements of instru literally means symptoms (sho) of fear (kyofu) ments which expose visual stimuli for brief of interpersonal relations (taijin). The amount of effort, use of resources, and behaviors or appearances will offend or likelihood of failure associated with a partic bring shame on others, causing those other ular piece of work. Being focused on and motivated to fear of eye-to-eye contact (jikoshisen-kyofu), accomplish a particular piece of work. The perceived pertinence or applicability faction of two independent sets of conditions of a given piece of work either to a larger job without any signal as to when one has been or to the goals and motivations of the individ satisfed. The chemical sense of detecting mol times within a period of approximately 30 ecules dissolved in liquid placed on the seconds. The experi contingent on the satisfaction of two indepen ence of any combination of sweet, sour, salt, dent sets of conditions without any signal as and bitterness mixed with olfactory and tac to when one has been satisfed. An example tile sensations, as in the taste of a chocolate of this is a combination of a fxed ratio and a bar. Preference style, as in a taste for French variable interval schedule in which an organ provincial furniture. A fxed, intense dislike for a particular taste resulting in a turning away from it. Adult behavior resem taste aversion learning bling such childish fts of unreasonable rage. A special case of learning which often occurs in a single trial in which a food which tardive dyskinesia is soon followed by vomiting becomes aversive n. Also called the Garcia effect the facial or limb muscles, and stereotyped and taste aversion conditioning. It is shaped structures on the tongue and in other 536 taste cell telegraphic speech parts of the mouth and larynx containing sev entire being through space. Positive taxis is eral dozen taste receptor cells in the interior, movement toward a stimulus, while negative which send microvilli out through a hole in taxis is movement away from a stimulus. The science of classifcation, as in biological taste cell or etymological taxonomy. Any of about 350,000 neuroreceptor cells in the mouth, throat, or larynx which convert Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale certain chemicals dissolved in liquid into a sen n. A widely used 50-item true-false scale con sation of sweet, sour, bitter, or salt, depending sisting of a list of symptoms of anxiety, each of on the type of taste cell. The number of these cells varies widely t distribution among individuals and declines with age. An individual with the hereditary capac tionsample, which is widely used in hypothesis ity to taste propylthiouracil, a usually bitter testing. This characteristic is pres teaching machine ent in about 75% of the adult population. Any device for presenting a learner with a program of instruction structured to include taste receptor reading or observable material, problems, n. Any of about 350,000 neuroreceptors in the or questions to check understanding of each mouth, throat, or larynx, which convert cer segment of material and the provision of feed tain chemicals dissolved in liquid into a sen back as to correctness of response to the prob sation of sweet, sour, bitter, or salt, depending lems or questions. A central part of the midbrain and pons nn 1 below the tectum containing many motor where n = the number of pairs and p = the pathways descending to the spinal cord and sum of the rankings greater than a particular sensory pathways ascending to the thalamus, ranking to the right of the ranking, when one as well as the red nucleus, the occulomotor variable is ordered by the other variable. A hereditary refexive movement toward or telegraphic speech away from a particular class of stimuli which n. A term used in the context of agrammatic differs from a tropism in that the organism oral expression to describe the use of short, has bodily motility. Thus some fagellate pro defciently constructed utterances, lacking tozoa move toward light in taxis, while some morphosyntactic requirements. Patients with telegraphic or agram temperature sense matic expression speak in halting, nonfuent, n.

This suggests that brain infammation linked with air pollution begins at an early age and is associated with early cognitive impairment allergy forecast boise cheap rhinocort 200 mcg on line. It should be noted that these studies do not tell us which air pollutants are responsible for the observed effects allergy medicine for mold purchase rhinocort master card. Each of these conditions facilitates the breakdown of respiratory epithelium by air particulates or other pollutants allergy medicine build up buy cheap rhinocort 200mcg on-line. When this barrier is disrupted allergy treatment quadricep buy 100mcg rhinocort otc, infammatory mediators and particulate matter can more easily pass through to the 98 systemic circulation allergy forecast spokane rhinocort 100 mcg generic, thereby facilitating access to the brain allergy symptoms watery eyes buy rhinocort on line. Inside the brain, infammatory cytokines activate microglia, 99 a potent agent of neurodegeneration. The infuence of omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids in neurodegenerative disease is discussed further in the nutrition section below. This evidence is consistent with the established link between air particulates and infammatory injury to the lung, nose, blood vessels, and heart. Since they are fat soluble and bioaccumulative, they also contaminate the general food supply though levels have been falling. The study found, among women, signifcant dose-dependent well have shown aa 104 reductions in attention and memory functions. Another of these that exposure to studies found older subjects who regularly consumed Great Lakes fsh various forms of ab 105 had impairments in memory and learning compared to controls. These studies are cognitive consistent with prior research showing defcits in memory and learning ad impairments. Since they are not longitudinal, prospective studies, they cannot establish when the cognitive decline occurred. These studies also provide further evidence that environmental chemicals can increase the risk of other diseases in the Western disease cluster. The licensing of over 18,000 American pesticide products demonstrates and the application of over two billion pounds of pesticides per year neurologic impacts to crops, homes, schools, parks, and forests creates the potential for at lower levels of 121 122 pervasive human exposures. Historically, most attention was focused on acute pesticides in effects to humans from relatively large exposures, but in recent adults, primarily years neurological effects from chronic, low-level exposures have been more widely studied in laboratory animals, people who apply in the occupational pesticides, and the general public. Acute high-dose effects of organophosphates include head ache, dizziness, nausea, vomiting, papillary constriction, sweating, tearing, and salivation. Many studies (reviewed in Kamel and 124 125 Hoppin and others) have documented chronic, lingering symp toms following acute high-dose organophosphate exposure, includ ing cognitive and psychomotor impairment, motor dysfunction, and 126 127 128 reduced vibration sensitivity. Greater Boston Physicians for Social Responsibility and Science and Environmental Health Network page 112 Environmental Threats to Healthy Aging occupational setting. As noted 130 131 in Kamel and Hoppin, most (though not all) studies examining cognitive and psychomotor function have documented chronic impair ments in association with long-term, lower-dose occupational pesticide 132 133 134 exposure. Cognitive domains that are affected include memory, attention, visual-spatial processing, pattern memory, and others. For example, chronic low level exposure to fungicides among French vineyard workers increased the risk of poor performance on tests of selective attention and working memory by a factor of 3. Tests of associative memory, verbal fuency, 135 and abstraction were similarly impaired. An increased risk was not seen in agricultural occupations or dementia in 137 more generally. Another fve-year longitudinal, population-based association with study in Manitoba found that a history of occupational exposure to occupational fumigants/defoliants was associated with a 4. Very few studies have looked for chronic cognitive effects of pesticide exposure in adults outside of the occupational setting. One of these studies conducted in the Netherlands found that gardeners (as well as farmers) had an increased risk of having mild cognitive dysfunction at the outset of the study, as well as an increased risk of developing mild 141 cognitive dysfunction over the three-year course of the study. Another study looking for an association of non-occupational exposure to pes ticides (based in part on records of herbicide and insecticide spraying 142 and areas of residence) failed to fnd a link. Notably, accurate prior exposure is especially diffcult to determine in the absence of good biomarkers of cumulative exposure for most pesticides. This under-recognition of actual associations, it should be noted, does not undermine the validity of any associations that are observed. Data on the effects of chronic non-occupational disease/dementia exposure are too sparse to allow any conclusions. Research attempt can be seen in part ing to link chronic non-occupational pesticide exposures and cognitive as consequences impairment is especially hampered by the diffculty of distinguishing of infammation exposed from unexposed subjects (due in part to the lack of long-term and the associated exposure biomarkers). This diffculty leads to exposure misclassifca disruption of tion, which makes associations with low-dose exposure very hard to identify even if they do exist. The evidence is strongest for diabetes but is also substantial for midlife hypertension, obesity and elevated total cholesterol. Greater Boston Physicians for Social Responsibility and Science and Environmental Health Network page 114 Environmental Threats to Healthy Aging as a framework as shown in the fgure below. Disrupted insulin signaling in turn causes the metabolic and vascular consequences of diabetes: hyperglycemia (elevated blood sugar), hyperlipidemia (elevated blood lipids), and vascular disease. One illustrative study (following over 1,400 middle-aged subjects for more than 20 years associated with on average) found that midlife obesity, high total cholesterol, and a greater risk elevated systolic blood pressure were all signifcant risk factors for of developing dementia, each increasing the risk by approximately two-fold. The cognitive decline study also found the risks were additive, increasing the risk for and dementia. Diabetes/hyperglycemia Several large prospective cohort studies found that diabetes was associated with a greater risk of developing cognitive decline and dementia. Interestingly, a four-year pro spective study of older women found the adjusted risk of developing cognitive impairment is increased not only among diabetics (1. Greater Boston Physicians for Social Responsibility and Science and Environmental Health Network Environmental Threats to Healthy Aging page 115 defned as fasting glucose greater than 110 mg/dL (1. Obesity Numerous large prospective epidemiological studies have found midlife obesity to be associated with greater risk of dementia in later 153-158 159 160 life (though not all studies are consistent). For example, a 27-year prospective study of over 10,000 men and women in the Kaiser Permanente Medical Group found that people who were obese in midlife had a 74 percent increased risk of dementia later in 161 life, while overweight people had a 35 percent increased risk. Providing further support for the view that midlife obesity increases risks for cognitive decline, three recent imaging studies showed obesity in middle-aged and older adults was associated with a number of abnormalities in brain structure. These abnormalities were particularly evident in the frontal lobe, an area of the brain especially prone to damage during aging. These fndings underscore concerns that obesity may contribute to abnormalities in brain structure and function in midlife, laying the 171 groundwork for cognitive decline or dementia in later life. One of infammatory these found metabolic syndrome a signifcant risk factor specifcally in markers is itself 177 the presence of increased infammatory markers. While different studies have found different markers to be associated with increased risk,ai the consistent fnding of an increase in one proinfammatory marker or another across different populations is notable. The one prospective study that did not fnd an association used a less sensitive outcome measure (a one-time measure of cognitive function rather than decline aj across two or more points in time). This may have reduced the ability 188 ak of the study to detect an effect if present. The association of increased infammatory markers with cognitive decline/dementia is ai the different markers found to be associated with cognitive decline/dementia may refect both differences in study characteristics (experimental design and measurement techniques) as well as potential differences in the populations studied (including different risk factors, nutritional profles, toxicant exposures, and other poorly identifed modifers of infammatory response). Greater Boston Physicians for Social Responsibility and Science and Environmental Health Network Environmental Threats to Healthy Aging page 117 supported by the very large body of evidence pointing to infammation as key in the pathogenesis of dementia. This includes histopathology, epidemiology, gene polymorphism studies, and links between infamma tory cytokines and microglial activation and amyloid-beta processing. The animal studies provide important corroborating evidence for the human observational studies, which are subject to certain diffculties that we will explain. The cage environment is varied by changing the number of objects available for exploration or the number of animals in the cage. First, and not surprisingly, rodents learn and remember better in an enriched environment. Second, neurogenesis (the creation of new nerve cells) is increased in an enriched environment, specifcally in the hippocampus. One of the mechanisms reported to account for this remarkable fnding is increased synaptic and dendritic growth. Greater Boston Physicians for Social Responsibility and Science and Environmental Health Network page 118 Environmental Threats to Healthy Aging unreplicated fndings include increases in brain-derived nerve growth factor and alterations in amyloid-beta levels. A recent review of 15 longitudinal studies found an increased risk of cognitive decline with reduced social networks (5 of 7 studies) and physical inactivity (6 of 7 stud ies). Increased dementia risk was also found in relation to reduced social networks (6 of 7 studies). While all studies were assessed as methodologically sound, the possibility that reduced social, mental, and physical activity is itself an expression, rather than a cause, of Engaging in am 193 194 early dementia cannot be excluded. Thus, animal studies leisure time showing the benefts of environmental enrichment provide important physical activity corroborating evidence. In brief, these studies suggest that exercise transiently increases reactive oxygen species (free radicals), and then strongly up-regulates antioxidant capacity. The net effect is that people who exercise regularly have reduced ongoing levels of oxidative stress and 198-200 infammatory burden. Psychosocial stress is well estab lished as a risk factor in cardiovascular disease. While the role of psychosocial stress in dementia/cognitive decline is complex and Psychosocial stress incompletely understood, a growing body of evidence suggests an is well established emerging key role in the development of dementia/cognitive decline. Similarly, recent prospective cohort studies found the tendency to experience psycho logical distress was associated with a tenfold increased risk in epi ao 207 sodic memory decline and a 2. These hormones increase blood pressure, heart rate, and blood an the odds ratio was 1. George Chrousos, Chief of Pediatric and Reproductive Endocrinoology at the National Institute of Child Health and Human Develop ment, and Philip Gold of the Clinical Neuroendocrinology Branch at the National Institute of Mental Health. The theory is based on a large body of observational and laboratory data involving people and animals. Greater Boston Physicians for Social Responsibility and Science and Environmental Health Network page 120 Environmental Threats to Healthy Aging sugar, among other effects. In the presence of chronic stress, however, these hormones and systems are continually activated, contributing to risks for high blood pressure, elevated blood lipids, atherosclerosis, impaired growth 212 in children, and reproductive dysfunction, among other effects. Animal213 and/or human stud ies214 have shown stressful experience or depression was associated with increased levels of adrenal corticosteroids, and that these hor Psychosocial mones can damage the hippocampus (which has a high concentra stress has also 215 tion of corticosteroid receptors) and worsen damage from other been linked with 216 neurological insults. Some studies suggest that elevated blood elevated cytokine cortisol levels are related to clinical progression of dementia/cognitive production. Further, stressful experience and depression them selves may be associated with structural changes in the hippocampus 219 and impaired forms of learning and memory.

When the animal is siting in the test suggested that it should be viewed as a prediction error apparatus bet n trials allergy medicine green box rhinocort 200 mcg for sale, it has no expectancy of reward allergy testing on a two year old generic rhinocort 100mcg fast delivery. As the animal begins to associate the light with increase in the value associated with the light allergy shots for horses order rhinocort now. The prediction error model has proven to be an Although this efect might occur for many reasons allergy medicine benadryl side effects rhinocort 100mcg low cost. In the previ sive thing is that it is predicted by a simple model in which ous example allergy symptoms around eyes purchase rhinocort overnight, we described positive prediction errors allergy forecast new orleans generic rhinocort 200 mcg mastercard, value representations are updated by a simple mechanism the case where the obtained reward is greater than the based on the diference bet n the predicted and ob expected reward. Experi happens during a trial when the experimenter meanly ments have shown that the magnitude of a dopaminergic withholds the juice afer presenting the light. Because of the long delay, it would be hard for an with a stimulus is no longer produced. Kobayashi & Schultz, is no longer a violation of an expectancy (so the negative 2008). Inded, scientists have these dopamine responses sem to mirror behavioral recognized that the prediction error signal itself can be preferences: Large, probable, immediate rewards are useful for reinforcement learning, serving as a teaching preferred to smaller, less likely, and distant ones. As discussed earlier, models of decision making assume that events in the world (or internal states) have Reward and Punishment Not all options are re associated values. Although it may sem like it, punish ing the current value representation and multiplying it ment is not the withholding of a reward. Aversive events are the opposite of this elegant, yet simple model not only predicts how rewarding events in that they are unpleasant, should be values are updated but also accounts for changes in the avoided, and have opposite motivational values. Early In one important respect, however, reinforcement in training, the value of the light is low. In our to down: Some studies show increases in dopamine activ lotery examples, we might imagine that the expected re it, others fnd decreases, and some fnd both within the ward in the frst pairing is $55 (average of $100 and $10), same study. In sum, there are many and motivational events because it receives inputs fom computational similarities bet n how we respond to re the forebrain limbic regions and sends inhibitory projec wards and punishments, and this fnding may refect the tions to dopamine neurons in the substantia nigra pars interaction bet n the habenula and dopamine system. Nonetheless, researchers compacta while monkeys saccaded to a target that was can ask similar questions about the similarit of neural either to the lef or right of a fxation point. In one one target was associated with a juice reward, and a sac study, Ben Seymour and his colleagues (2007) paired cade to the other target resulted in non-reinforcement. Gains were encoded in more anterior regions ulated by input fom the lateral habenula. If Activity to actions result in either juice or nothing, the habenula is active when the nothing choice is made. But if the to How does the release of dopamine actually result in actions result in either nothing or an aversive puf of air learning Over time, they learned that each cue was associated with one of two possible outcomes (or for Cue A, the same neutral outcome). One hy associated with reward, the dopamine activit refects pothesis is based on the idea of Hebbian learning (se how desirable the object is. Tat is, with Berridge (2007) argues that dopamine release is the re reduced dopamine, study participants still liked the drug sult, not the cause, of learning. First, mice that are genetically unable to It is, of course, reasonable to suppose that dopamine synthesize dopamine can still learn (Cannon & Bseikri, serves multiple functions. Instead, they code the informational conse crease their fring rate to aversive stimuli (Figure 12. Berridge describes a reward as made up of thre The frst response class is similar to what would be ex dissociable components: wanting, learning, and liking. Dopamine activit indicates that something or signaling things that require atention. For positive prediction errors (red), the excitatory D1 receptor will strengthen corticostriatal synapses in the direct pathway while the inhibitory D2 receptor will weaken the corticostriatal synapses in the indirect pathway. The reduction in the activity in the dopamine neuron will weaken synapses in the direct pathway and strengthen synapses in the indirect pathway (by removing an inhibitory input). The net effect is to reduce the likelihood of the response that failed to produce an expected reward. These neurons increase their fring rate as the probability of a positive outcome increases and decrease their fring rate as the probability of a negative outcome increases. These neurons increase their fring rate as reinforcement probability increases, independent of whether the reinforce ment is positive or negative, signaling that the stimulus is important (or predictive). The the ventral striatum and are part of a netork involving fring rate of dopamine neurons is correlated with prediction error. In contrast, the neurons excited Prediction error is used to update value information and by salience were located more dorsolaterally in the sub learning. We can se that when activated by reward salience, which may act to con damage occurs within the dopamine system, or when trol motivated behavior. Their anatomical organization downstream structures in the cortex are compromised, appears to refect their functional organization. Tese observations bring us back to how fontal lobe control systems are at work in both de Goal Planning cision-making and goal-oriented behavior. Tre components are essential for success fully developing and executing an action plan (Duncan, Some rewards are primary reinforcers, such as food, water and sex; others are secondary reinforcers, such as 1995). For instance, in preparing for an exam, a con the subjective value of an item is made up of multiple scientious student develops an action plan like the one in variables that include payoff amount, context, probability, Figure 12. This plan can be represented as a hierarchy effort/cost, temporal discounting, novelty, and preference. In the color task, Do well on exam the response was based on the color of the square. The feature task added another layer of complexit because the response was based on texture and the colors indi cated which response was associated with which texture. When the participant had to use color to select the appropriate dimension for the response, Make sure Fix computer activation was also observed in more prefontal cortex all lecture notes are and extended into polar fontal cortex for the most com available plex task. A key idea of hierarchy, however, is that processing defcits will be must be anticipated. Individuals who fail at operations required bered beter if the student sets aside 1 hour a day to study for performance at the lower levels of a hierarchy will during the wek preceding the exam, or would it be beter also fail when given more challenging tasks. Tird, the student individuals who fail at tasks that require the highest levels must determine what is required to achieve the subgoals. Purchasing cofe, If the lesions were restricted to the most anterior regions, for example, can be an action and a goal. Patients with more posterior le resentation, it is easy to se that failure to achieve a goal sions, those centered in premotor cortex, were impaired can happen in many ways. If a fiend arrives fontal lobes in this hierarchical evaluation process cap unannounced the wekend before the exam, critical study tured the real-world problems faced by patients with time can be lost. The patients behavior in patients with prefontal lesions can be traced were asked to help plan the family budget of a couple to many potential sources. The defcits in fltering irrelevant information, making it dif patients understood the overriding ned to identif places fcult to kep the eyes on the prize. Or the challenge may where savings could be achieved, and they could appre come in prioritizing information to help select the best ciate the ned to budget. Noting that the $10,800 yearly expense for in terms of the level of abstraction of action goals. Course I know a place possible fnger responses to a series of colored squares that sells tents cheap. A colored A square containing texture objects of varying size was presented on each trial. In the feature task, the response was based on B the texture, and the mapping of texture to fnger varied for the two colors. C In the dimension task, one color indicated that the response was based on shape, and the other color indicated that the response was based on D size. The context task was the same as the dimension task except that the mappings changed from one block to the next. Anterior regions show b more specifc activation patterns, consistent with idea that these areas are recruited as the task requires more embedded goals. B: Anterior premotor cortex was sensitive the feature, dimension, and context tasks. From a strictly monetary perspective, this deci Planning and Staying on Goal sion makes sense. But at a practical level, we realize the By focusing on the housing costs, the patient is per inappropriateness of this choice. To succed in Goal Planning | 535 this kind of activit, we must monitor and evaluate the have activated semantic information fom your long diferent subgoals. An essential feature of cognitive con term memory about the location, shape, and color of the trol is the abilit to shif our focus fom one subgoal to bridge, as well as episodic information related to your another. Tese representations constitute the contents of current goal, focusing on the information that is relevant working memory. If your fiend then asks you about the to achieving that goal, ignore irrelevant information, and, color of the bridge, you must be able to focus on your when appropriate, shif fom one subgoal to another in a memory of the color of the bridge. This selection process is a cardinal feature of tasks term knowledge stored in posterior cortex. The conversation will The fltering hypothesis ofers a way to appreciate the role of the fontal lobe in tasks where memory demands are minimal. Frontal lobe patients display heightened interference on the Stroop task, in which participants are shown a list of colored words and the words spell color Location: Parietal names such as red, gren, or blue. In the congruent condi tion, the colors of the words correspond to their names; in Goal the incongruent condition, the word names and colors do representation not correspond (se Figure 3. With years of reading ex perience, we have a strong urge to read words even when the task requires us to ignore them in favor of color. Tus Shape: everyone is slower in responding to incongruent stimuli Inferotemporal in comparison with congruent stimuli. Temporo-occipital The contribution of prefontal cortex to selection is evident in a series of elegant experiments conducted by Sharon Tompson-Schill (Tompson-Schill et al. Tompson-Schill hypoth esized that this prefontal activation refected fltering of the transient representations (the semantic associ ates of the target item) as they were being retrieved fom long-term memory in the posterior cortex. In the When the person is asked about the color the Golden Gate Bridge low fltering condition, each noun was associated with (the task goal), links to memory of the color of the bridge is ampli fed while links to memory of the location and shape of the bridge a single verb. You have been supplied with more diffcult: a candle, a box of matches, and some thumbtacks. They proposed that patients with Rainer Dunker introduced it in his monograph on problem lateral prefrontal cortex lesions would actually do better on solving in 1945 (cited in Wickelgren, 1974). This pre Suppose that there is only one match, and it sits on the diction was based on the idea that an impaired selection table outside the matchbox. They suddenly realize superior performance of the patients was especially strik that the matchbox can serve more than one purpose. In ing, given that these individuals were worse than the con addition to providing a striker for the matches, it could be trols when presented with equations like those in Problem used as a crude candlestick. Tack the box to the wall with 1 or equations that required standard operator transforma the thumbtacks, light the candle and let it drip into the box, tions. Thus, in developing an action plan, we tend to think response space must be narrowed. Functional fxedness might be seen as an undesired consequence of having evolved the kind of rapid-response selection ability associated with the prefrontal cortex. As Controls 100 we have seen in the work on semantic generation, the Lateral prefrontal patients lateral prefrontal cortex facilitates the selection of viable 80 responses from a set of automatically activated long-term representations. By 40 emptying the box of matches, we might realize new possi bilities; but even here, many people continue to be unable 20 to see novel uses because of the strong association be tween the stimulus and an action. Goal Planning | 537 the controls to focus on the numbers or simple changes in view leads to a focus on the costs of not having a mature the operators. Children have a hard time engaging in delayed these results are especially compelling when we con gratifcation, maintaining focus, and inhibiting behavior.

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