Carl A. Germann, MD

• Attending Phsyician, Department of Emergency Medicine, Maine
• Medical Center, Portland, ME, USA

The majority of students does not care of fad or sedulously dress up in their day-to-day lives treatment plantar fasciitis order discount oxybutynin on-line. It has been believed that the male shall be strong and firm symptoms 8dpo purchase oxybutynin 2.5 mg with mastercard, erudite and versatile symptoms zinc toxicity purchase generic oxybutynin online. Even in the contemporary society with plural cultures medications given to newborns order oxybutynin 5mg with visa, the mainstream concept of man lies in that man should behold manly personality and man shall struggle for their career achievement pure keratin treatment cheap oxybutynin generic. As they conceive medications zetia proven 5mg oxybutynin, the most significance for a man is academic study and personal career and thus the look is nothing important. The interest of 74% man students in fads is not much interest to the extent that they are reluctant to spend time in noticing the fashionable colors. Subsequently, a large number of students have their dressing comfortable and convenient, adapted to their identity and traditional aesthetic taste, rather than to cater to the fad. Alternatively, the simple and practical dressing symbolizes a nature of Chinese students in their lives, essentially different from the elements of simplicity in the fad. The emerge of consuming culture produces charming men for common people and subsequently brings on man dress with 39 unisex gender on streets of metropolis and the media. On the contrast, the university students keep sharp gender differentiation: 65% of students are reluctant to pinky clothes appearing unisex gender. The most of questioned students belong to the groups greatly affected by traditional Chinese culture and collective value. It is believed that a strong link is remained between woman and beautiful appearance yet. The man-like personality is defined apart from anything related to woman, including the pursuit to the fad and personal dressing or makeup. In term of color, men like their clothes in black, grey, blue and other color signifying calming; ladies are fond of pinky-based colors on their dresses. A good example proves the importance of blue in the recognition of color in traditional Chinese culture. Blue is the favorite color of Chinese man because it is identified with the core of Confucian culture: the reserved and mean. However, in the area with less economic development, people are reserved in thought and concept. The difference between the families in urban city and village tailors the diversity of aesthetics and penchant to the university students. The students from urban family own an open mind to dressing and more easily accept diversified value. According to the questionnaire, 9% of students from village by no means accept pinky dress, though 50% of students from urban family can accept it. Upon the interest in color, the percentage of students from urban family is higher than those from village. If university students are asked to select the type of spring-summer clothes, 86% of them like free style and sport costumes. As a result, the fad can be understood a special system with economic restriction and regional character in aspects of production and organization. The living experience, working conventions and values embedded in the parents are imposed to the establishment of the cultural pattern for this unit. Initially from simulating the speeches, behaviors and social skills of their parents, children are saturated in the ethics of family. Children learn how to tie the button, recognize the colors, the quality of clothes at their childhood and then consciously combine all the knowledge learned together. In term of dressing, the preference displays variously among the students from the families in background of public institutes, of self-employment and of finance. To the students from the family where the parents are free-laners, colorful and bright leisure clothes and jean are chosen by 33. The wall of the campus turns to be a screen departing the novice lives in the metropolis. Profound atmosphere of academy on the campus encounter the exuberant temporal lives outside the wall. The flourishing fad runs through the quick pace of live, dressing diversified and constantly changed; the students are congested in their studies, living regular and peaceful. Academic research and technological development demand ration, logic and prudence. In a consequence, the students on the campus are much affected in their dressing habits, standards on events and attitudes towards lives. While boy students pay attention to their study and care of the research of science, they, naturally, know little about the fad. Simple and appropriate dresses are in favor of these students and blue, purplish blue and blue grey are the mostly chosen colors. In this sense, the colors of gold and silver seem so much improper against the campus. Therefore, the fashionable dressing and colors on the street of Beijing are afar and vague to the students on the campus. At least, the proceeding of the popular elements in the fad is much tardier on the campus that that outside. All man students love blue so much that it on the top of the favorite color and of the color for their clothes. The case is that the dresses are in purplish blue and blue grey in daily life though the acid blue with high brightness and sky blue with high transparency are the best for the students. In addition, emerald green, bright red and ultramarine are also on the first options in the favorite of color. It is believed that the contrast between the conception of color and the daily dressing is due to the heavy pressure of study as well as the job prospected. As it is mentioned that the students in the universities in Beijing are top students in their local high school, they have to carry on the pressure from the taxing study in the universities, the sincere expectation of family and the fierce social competitions. The colors with high transparence and brightness will be in priority once they meet with, and the color of grey will have them much more depressed. In everyday lives, the color of gray commonly dressed is mostly imposed by traditional culture, values, family environment and dressing conception. In this sense, they are usually dressed in casual way for simplicity and comfort rather than explicit color overlapping. To grasp the myth of colors and the pleasure on colors, it is necessary to learn the basic theory of color and understand the basic attribution and the visual, sentimental and symbolic meanings of colors, in addition to the gift on the colors. In this sense, the investigation reflects that university man students know little about the knowledge of colors and even are not much interested in color. Only 32% of the students are interested in color, but 21 students are majored in art and have received academic training in colors. As a result, the choice of color in favor is completely different from those fashionable. It is understandable that the students turn their back to the pinky and gray which are so popular in the fad. The limited population and the qualification requiring improvement of color education lead to the defective aesthetics and weak consciousness of the colors in the surrounding. Conclusion Man students in the universities in Beijing love to wear simple and comfortable clothe in purplish blue, white, grey and gray blue in order. Their favorite colors are acid blue, sky blue, emerald blue and bright red in sequence. In these two perspectives, apart from the common color of blue, there is a great difference against each other in other colors in terms of hue, brightness and transparency. In their dressing are usually low transparent but they prefer to the colors with high hue and transparency. A major number of the students are not interested in pinky unisex clothes, and few students like fashionable issues or popular colors. General speaking, the man students in the famous universities are much far away from the fad in dressing. Specifically, the difference of favor of dressing colors is not much between the students of science, literature and of art; the students of art may choose popular color, gold and silver. In dressing spring-summer clothes, many students of art like to wear free-style clothes but the students of science and literature may wear knitting sweater and shirt. Out of these distinctions between the students from different disciplines, the students of art are dressed more casual and closer to the fashion that those of literature and science. The favor of color is not distinguished among the students with different academic degree, say, the undergraduate student and the master candidates. According to the data out of the investigation, here are the major reasons for the favor of dressing color. At first, it is because of the gender of man inherited in traditional Chinese culture. Men are required to maintain their manly personality and thus they are kept away from the contact with the fad. Secondly, the students are affected by the different backgrounds in concern of local culture, grow-up experience and family. As well, they all grow up in Confucian culture: they are educated to be qualified with mean. Thirdly, the enclosed campus and imposing force of academic surrounding retards the sensitivity of these students away from the fad. The progress of the fad on the campus is much slow than it in the other field of metropolis. The pressure of study and society presses these students to survive in their heavy study. Conversely, the physical and mental force against the day-to-day color leads to their choice of bright colors. At last, the research on the indifference of these students from the color in the fad shall not ignore the weak education on colors. Out of this research, the wall standing between the tower of ivory and the noisy community forms two completely two worlds. On the campus, the preference to dresses does not keep pace of the changes in the society. In a distance from the fad in the society, this community of universities formulates its own dressing style in fact. Probably, it is the wall of campus that produces a classic dressing style: simple but rustic, an alternative of the constantly changed fad. In the stage where the different dressing conception on the students against that of the fad, they conform themselves to their own dressing concept ascribed to traditional Chinese culture and value. They does not run after the fashionable dress but prefer to wear simple, casual one according to their own identity. However, it is believed that the wide spread of color knowledge in the academic education will change the preference of dressing color to a certain extent that they will bring the popular colors in their aesthetics. This makes it difficult to communicate and to judge result relevance in a wider perspective. We conclude that the multitude of studies with different approaches can be seen as cases, jointly adding to a widened and deepened understanding of colour. It also includes building exteriors co-existing with other buildings, man-made artefacts and surrounding nature. Thus architects and architecture would gain from a better understanding of colour perception, space perception and their mutual interdependence. Issues like these have been dealt with by colour researchers within the architectural profession and by artists. The methods and terminology of these different disciplines differ, often to such an extent that we find it difficult to communicate, although we might sense that we have something to learn from each other. Still researchers from different disciplines and with different scientific approaches have all to gain from a deepened collaboration. We have to discuss issues like: What research questions are fruitful for different purposes; what are the limitations and prospects of different methodological approaches; to what extent can results be relevant under other conditions than those of the studyfi He has greatly improved our possibilities to understand each other, by sorting out the ambiguous colour terminology. Each of these categories is defined by its own specific means of identification and some of them are further specified into sub-categories. Others are visual experiences whose identification must depend on experiencing human beings.

Chlamydial infections may be acquired concurrently with gonorrhoea and persist after gonorrhoea has been treated successfully medicine vial caps best buy for oxybutynin. No acquired immunity has been demonstrated; cellular immunity is immunotype-specific medicine 4211 v cheap oxybutynin 5mg mastercard. Preventive measures: 1) Health and sex education; same as for syphilis (see Syphilis treatment dvt purchase genuine oxybutynin on-line, 9A) medicine to stop diarrhea buy generic oxybutynin 2.5 mg, with emphasis on use of a condom when engaging in sexual intercourse spa hair treatment order oxybutynin 5mg fast delivery. Screening of adult women should also be considered if they are under 25 medications education plans generic oxybutynin 5 mg line, have multiple or new sex partners, and/or use barrier contraceptives inconsistently. As a minimum, concurrent treatment of regular sex partners is a practical approach to management. Erythromycin is an alternative drug of choice for newborn and for women with a known or suspected pregnancy. Herpesvirus simplex type 2 is rarely implicated; Trichomonas vaginalis, though rarely implicated, has been shown to be a significant cause of urethritis in some high prevalence settings. Complications and sequelae include salpingitis with subsequent risk of infertility, ectopic pregnancy or chronic pelvic pain. Because gonococcal and chlamydial cervicitis are often difficult to distinguish clinically, treatment for both organisms is recommended when one is suspected. The intracellular organisms are less readily recoverable from the discharge itself. Control of patient, contacts and the immediate environment: 1) Report to local health authority: Case report is required in many industrialized countries, Class 2 (see Reporting). Appropriate antibiotherapy renders discharges noninfectious; patients should refrain from sexual intercourse until treatment of index patient and current sexual partners is completed. In untreated cases, rapid dehydration, acidosis, circulatory collapse, hypoglycaemia in children, and renal failure can rapidly lead to death. In most cases infection is asymptomatic or causes mild diarrhea, especially with organisms of the El Tor biotype; asymptomatic carriers can transmit the infection. In severe dehydrated cases (cholera gravis), death may occur within a few hours, and the case-fatality rate may exceed 50%. Diagnosis is confirmed by isolating Vibrio cholerae of the serogroup O1 or O139 from feces. If laboratory facilities are not nearby or immediately available, Cary Blair transport medium can be used to transport or store a fecal or rectal swab. For epidemiological purposes, a presumptive diagnosis can be based on the demonstration of a significant rise in titre of antitoxic and vibriocidal antibodies. In nonendemic areas, organisms isolated from initial suspected cases should be confirmed in a reference laboratory through appropriate biochemical and serological reactions and by testing the organisms for cholera toxin production or for the presence of cholera toxin genes. In epidemics, once laboratory confirmation and antibiotic sensitivity have been established, it becomes unnecessary to confirm all subsequent cases. In any single epidemic, one particular serogroup and biotype tends to be dominant. Prior to 1992, non-O1 strains were recognized as causing sporadic cases and rare outbreaks of diarrheal disease, but were not associated with large epidemics. However, in 1992 1993, large-scale epidemics of cholera-like disease were reported in India and Bangladesh, caused by a new organism, V. The clinical and epidemiological picture of illness caused by this organism is typical of cholera, and cases should be reported as such. Epidemics and pandemics are strongly linked to the consumption of unsafe water, poor hygiene, poor sanitation and crowded living conditions. Conditions leading to epidemics exist in many developing countries where cholera is either endemic or a recurring problem in a large number of areas. Typical settings for cholera are periurban slums where basic urban infrastructure is missing. Outbreaks of cholera can also occur on a seasonal basis in endemic areas of Asia and Africa. For example, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, experienced an outbreak in 2000 2001 that resulted in more than 125 000 cases with a low case fatality rate of less than 0. Man-made or natural disasters such as complex emergencies and fioods resulting in population movements as well as overcrowded refugee camps are conducive to explosive outbreaks with high case fatality rates. Cholera is one of the 3 diseases requiring notification under the International Health Regulations. Low case fatality rate values were observed in several countries including South Africa. Elsewhere, case fatality rates remain high and can reach up to 30 40% among vulnerable populations in high-risk areas who are not correctly rehydrated. The actual number of cholera cases, however, is likely to be much higher because of underreporting and poor surveillance systems. During the 19th century, cholera spread repeatedly through 6 pandemic waves from the Gulf of Bengal to most of the world. During the first half of the 20th century, the disease was confined largely to Asia, except for a severe epidemic in Egypt in 1947. During the latter half of the 20th century, the epidemiology of cholera has been marked by: 1) the relentless global spread of the seventh pandemic of cholera caused by V. Although the clinical disease was as severe as in other regions of the world, the overall case fatality rate in Latin America was kept at a remarkably low 1%, except in highly rural areas in the Andes and Amazon region where patients were often far from medical care. The epidemic continued to spread through 1994, with cases of O139 cholera reported from 11 countries in Asia. This new strain was soon introduced into other continents by infected travellers, but secondary spread outside of Asia has not been reported and V. Water usually is contaminated by feces of infected individuals and can itself contaminate, directly or through the contamination of food. Contamination of drinking water occurs usually at source, during transportation or during storage at home. In funeral ceremonies transmission may occur through consumption of food and beverages prepared by family members after they handled the corpse for burial. When epidemic El Tor cholera appeared in Latin America in 1991, faulty municipal water systems, contaminated surface waters, and unsafe domestic water storage methods resulted in extensive waterborne transmission of cholera. Beverages prepared with contaminated water and sold by street vendors, ice and even commercial bottled water have been incriminated as vehicles in cholera transmission, as have cooked grains with sauces. Outbreaks or epidemics as well as sporadic cases are often attributed to raw or undercooked seafood. In other instances, sporadic cases of cholera follow the ingestion of raw or inadequately cooked seafood from nonpolluted waters. Cases have been traced to eating shellfish from coastal and estuarine waters where a natural reservoir of V. Clinical cholera in endemic areas is usually confined to the lowest socioeconomic groups. Rarely, chronic biliary infection lasting for years, associated with intermittent shedding of vibrios in the stool, has been observed in adults. Serum vibriocidal antibodies, which are readily detected following O1 infection (but for which comparably specific, sensitive and reliable assays are not available for O139 infection), are the best immunological correlate of protection against O1 cholera. However, infection with O1 strains affords no protection against O139 infection and vice-versa. In experimental challenge studies in volunteers, an initial clinical infection due to V. Less severe cases can be managed on an outpatient basis with oral rehydration and an appropriate antimicrobial agent to prevent spread. Cholera wards can be operated even when crowded without hazard to staff and visitors, provided standard procedures are observed for hand washing and cleanliness and for the circulation of staff and visitors. In communities with a modern and adequate sewage disposal system, feces can be discharged directly into the sewers without preliminary disinfection. If there is evidence or high likelihood of secondary transmission within households, household members can be given chemoprophylaxis; in adults, tetracycline (500 mg 4 times daily) for 3 days or doxycycline a single dose of 300 mg, unless local strains are known or believed to be resistant to tetracycline. Children may also be given tetracycline (50 mg/kg/day in 4 divided doses for 3 days or doxycycline as a single dose of 6 mg/kg). A search by stool culture for unreported cases is recommended only among household members or those exposed to a possible common source in a previously uninfected area. Only severely dehydrated patients need rehydration through intravenous routes to repair fiuid and electrolyte loss through diarrhea. As rehydration therapy becomes increasingly effective, patients who survive from hypovolaemic shock and severe dehydration may manifest certain complications, such as hypoglycaemia, that must be recognized and treated promptly. Mild and moderate volume depletion should be corrected with oral solutions, replacing over 4 6 hours a volume matching the estimated fiuid loss (approximately 5% of body weight for mild and 7% for moderate dehydration). Continuing losses are replaced by giving, over 4 hours, a volume of oral solution equal to 1. The initial fiuid replacement should be 30 mL/kg in the first hour for infants and in the first 30 minutes for persons over 1 year, after which the patient should be reassessed. In severe cases, appropriate antimicrobial agents can shorten the duration of diarrhea, reduce the volume of rehydration solutions required, and shorten the duration of vibrio excretion. Epidemic measures: 1) Educate the population at risk concerning the need to seek appropriate treatment without delay. Chlorinate public water supplies, even if the source water appears to be uncontaminated. Chlorinate or boil water used for drinking, cooking and washing dishes and food containers unless the water supply is adequately chlorinated and subsequently protected from contamination. Food served at funerals of cholera victims may be particularly hazardous if the body has been prepared for burial by the participants without stringent precautions and this practice should be discouraged during epidemics. Disaster implications: Outbreak risks are high in endemic areas if large groups of people are crowded together without safe water in sufficient quantity, adequate food handling or sanitary facilities. International measures: 1) Governments are required to report cholera cases due to V. No country requires proof of cholera vaccination as a condition of entry and the International Certificate of Vaccination no longer provides a specific space for the recording of cholera vaccination. Immunization with either of the new oral vaccines can be recommended for individuals from industrialized countries travelling to areas of endemic or epidemic cholera. In countries where the new oral vaccines are already licensed, immunization is particularly recommended for travellers with known risk factors such as hypochlorhydria (consequent to partial gastrectomy or medication) or cardiac disease. They have been associated with wound infection and also, rarely, isolated from patients (usually immunocompromised hosts) with septicemic disease. The non-O1/ non-O139 strains isolated from blood of septicemic patients have been heavily encapsulated. In tropical endemic areas, some infections may be due to ingestion of surface waters. Wound infections arise from environmental exposure, usually to brackish water or from occupational accidents among fishermen, shellfish harvesters, etc. In high-risk hosts septicemia may result from a wound infection or from ingestion of contaminated seafood. If the latter indeed occurs, the period of potential communicability would likely be limited to the period of vibrio excretion, usually several days. Septicaemia develops only in hosts such as those who are immunocompromised, have chronic liver disease or severe malnutrition. Control of patient, contacts and immediate environment; Epidemic measures and Disaster implications: See Staphylococcal food intoxication (section I, 9B except for B2, 9C and 9D). Patients with liver disease or who are immunosuppressed (because of treatment or underlying disease) and alcoholics should be warned not to eat raw seafood.

Murrah crossbred in Brazil (Borghese photo symptoms 9f anxiety cheap oxybutynin american express, 2002) this data was based on 5 014 lactations medicine cabinet cheap oxybutynin 2.5 mg without a prescription, originating from 1 656 cows treatment genital herpes buy oxybutynin in united states online, who calved from 1973 to 2003 symptoms shingles purchase discount oxybutynin line, were sired by 234 bulls and were raised in twelve herds located in seven different Brazilian states (Para medicine university order oxybutynin 2.5 mg amex, Rio Grande do Norte medications 247 discount oxybutynin 2.5 mg with visa, Ceara, Bahia, Minas Gerais, Sao Paulo and Parana). The objective was to evaluate the productive and reproductive performances of dairy buffalo cows, whose production was experimentally controlled. The overall average for monitored milk yield, lactation length and age at calving was 154 1 589. The maximum yield per lactation was 5 796 kg whereas the minimum yield was only 351 kg of milk. The average milk production in this population was higher than the Brazilian average for cattle (1 265 kg/lactation), which is based on 19 million cows producing approximately 24 billion kilograms of milk (Ramos et al. Now in Brazil is prospecting a green revolution (Bernardes, 2011) as the basis for the diffusion of milk and cheese market, when the milk price in the farms is 1. The meat price is very low as about 3-5 R/kg according the cut value until 12R/kg for the filet. Paulo, very rich of pasture, produce 2400 kg in the first lactation with several cheese products as provolone, parmesao, mozzarella. In conclusion the buffalo livestock in Brazil started according the purpose to produce meat, utilizing natural pasture in extensive system; recently dairy purpose animals have been selected, utilizing Murrah and Mediterranean genetics, semi-intensive systems and advanced technologies have been applied, to create a rich market of milk and cheese products. Buffalo heifers along Amazonia forest, near Santarem (Borghese photo 2011) Figure 3. There are different breeds: Mediterranean Italian, Bulgarian Murrah, Indian Murrah and others imported from India (Nagpuri, Surti, Bhadawari) and from other American countries. The management and feeding systems are almost entirely based on pasture and the primary purpose is for meat production. Therefore generally buffalo cows are not milked but give milk to their calves and the calves, in turn, are sold to the meat market. Each farmer often owns large properties (from 1 000 to 10 000 hectares) with numerous animals. After that there was a development of the milk production potential with the introduction of better genetic lines (Montiel-Urdaneta et al. In the same way the technologies for milking cows, storing milk and for cheese production (together with technologies related to other milk products) are also developing. Although the promotion and expansion of buffalo production could solve the problem of the meat and milk deficit, there were many limiting factors such as government inertia regarding, the existing sanitary problems and the absence of national development programs (Reggeti, 2004). According Reggeti and Taracay (2006) there were 472 buffalos farms in Venezuela but no record were kept by the Venezuelan Buffalo Breeder Association, founded in 1986. Actually Venezuela buffalo livestock, with 350 000 head on 700 000 hectars, produces 105 million kg of milk per year, 17 million kg of meat per year (Zava, 2011) as in Venezuela too buffalo is becoming a dual purpose animal. The most of buffalo livestock is used for meat production, utilizing great land extensions on natural pastures and producing animals for slaughter of 425-550 kg, at the age of 18-30 months (Zava, 2011). Dairy purpose farms are going to be established in the South Region of Maracaibo lake, producing 3-6 liters per day with Murrah crossbreds. In the years 2008-2009 the performances of 10 356 lactations were recorded (Montiel et al. Buffaloes came to Colombia in 1967 from Trinidad and Tobago and after from Venezuela and Brazil, as a productive alternative to take advantage of low and floodable lands, with lots of vegetation, that buffalo can easier utilize liking to swim in the rivers (figure 4,5), where bovine cattle could hardly adapt, subsist or produce (Roldan, 2005). Because of the profitability of the business and the nutritional quality of buffalo products, the buffalo population has shown a great increase during the last years, passing from 30 000 head reported by Rocha Loures (2001) to 80 000 reported by Roldan (2005), to today situation with 150 000 head. The originally Colombian buffalo population is an undetermined breed mix of Indian breed, with low milk yield, as it was introduced because able to take advantage, as meat producer, of land that cannot be used for agriculture or cattle production (Reggeti, 2006). The actual trend is to use buffalo for milk production, increasing milk potential by importation of high quality semen from Brazil and from Italy, respectively Murrah and Mediterranean Italian, as milk is used for direct consumption, mixed with cow milk, or it is processed for producing cheese and sweets. The Colombian Buffalo Breeders Association is developing programs such as genetic improvement, genealogic registry programs, milk recording, ovulation synchronization, artificial insemination, embryo transfer, animal identification by ear and tail tattoos, skin and horns fire branding, skin cryogenic branding, microchips and inner stomach skittles (Roldan, 2005). In extensive systems fattened buffaloes are produced with final weight of 440-480 kg at the age of 20-24 months, as fattened buffaloes in improved pastures with rational rotations (figure 6), offering enough quantity and very good forage quality up to 12% protein, achieved 419 kg at slaughter at 491 days of age (Roldan, 2005). This is an example of the great possibilities to increase milk production in Colombia, substituting original Buffalypso breed with dairy breeds as Murrah or Mediterranean Italian by crossbreeding. Ecological Buffalo of Colombia, living in lagoons (Roldan photo, 2006) 159 Figure 6. Buffalo fattening on confined pasture (Roldan photo, Fortaleza farm, Cordoba, 2006) Figure 7. The buffalo breeds in Argentina are notably Mediterranean, Murrah and Jafarabadi imported from Brazil, (Zava, 2004) and are rapidly increasing. There are similar conditions to those in Venezuela, but the milk and cheese industry is better developed than in Brazil. The greatest concentration of farmers in this regard is in the Corrientes, with 30 000 head, and in Formosa (35 000 head) Provinces, on the North East lands of the country, that have a subtropical climate, hot and humid, with annual rains of 1000-2500 mm (Zava, 2010). Buffaloes are reared on an extensive system, on natural grasses, on poor pasture on low fertile land, together with bovine herds, on farms with an area of between 750 and 2 000 hectares with about one head/two hectares. Under these conditions the weight gain of buffalo is better than cattle: 700 g/day from birth to weaning, 500g after. The live weight is 500-550 kg at 27-30 months (cattle requires 48 months), the dressing percentage is 50-55%, the meat is of excellent color and tenderness (Zava, 2005). The production per hectare is 60 kg live weight for buffalo, while is only 40 kg live weight for cattle. Buffalo beef is sold at the same price than cattle beef, but recently buffalo beef has started to be sold differentiated as it is appreciated in high quality restaurants in the city of Buenos Aires. The problems in Argentina are: use of low-level technologies, inadequate sanitary conditions, low quality products and insufficient productivity (Vargas, 2004). Now developed technologies have been introduced also in extensive systems, applying sanitary plans with vaccination against mouth and foot disease, brucellosis, carbonchio, gangrene and with treatments against parassithosis. The milk production is effected in some farms in Formosa and Corrientes provinces utilizing selected groups of Murrah breed (figure 8) or Murrah x Mediterranean or Mediterranean, as Mediterranean Italian semen is continuously imported to increase rapidly the milk potential. The average milk production is 5-6 liters per day, the lactation length is about 240 days. La Salamandra farm, 70 km from Buenos Aires, developed a semi-intensive system with feeding-stuff integration, produces 2 159 kg milk in 267 days of lactation, with 7. The River buffaloes now present in the country were originally imported from Trinidad, Tobago and Panama. They are the breeds used for upgrading the larger population composed of Swamp buffaloes imported from Australia. As has been well established, the Buffalypso or Trinidadian Buffalo is the result of crossbreeding between the Carabao and other River breeds such as the Murrah, Nili-Ravi, Jaffarabadi, Surti, Nagpauri and Bhadawari, which was undertaken in the sugar cane factories of the Sugar Carone between 1920 and 1930. Detailed information was given regarding the comparative performance during five lactations of both buffalo types in relation to milk and fat production, specifying that the River (Buffalypso) buffalo was superior in milk yield (260 kg), with a 60 day longer lactation period than the Swamp buffalo, without any difference in fat content. In another work, it was indicated that the Buffalypso, when well managed, has a productive potentiality to produce 1 620 kg of milk (802 kg from milking and 817 kg to feed the buffalo calf) (Fraga et al. The policy is to substitute the Swamp buffalo (bufalo de Pantano) with the Buffalypso (bufalo de Rio) by crossing. The reproductive patterns are seasonal: from August to October the 50% of calving occurs, that mean the pregnancies start from November to January; the age at the first mating is 27 + 4. According the most recent news (Mitat, 2011), the buffalo population in Cuba is represented by 67 246 head, the breed is named Cuban Buffalypso, as the more evident characteristics are of this breed, even if the variability is very high, with albino animals too (figure 9). This breed was used before only as draught animal for drawing carriages and for working in the sugar cane field. As no selection was applied for dairy purpose, the milk production is very low: about 870 kg for lactation of 244 days. In a trial of recording 826 lactations, the milk yield was 1011 kg in lactations of 244 days, 1232 kg in lactations of 305 days. The meat production is about 3000 tons/year, slaughtering the males at 364 kg live weight, the weight is 148 kg at 8 months, 192 kg at 12 months. For this purpose, artificial insemination has been applied with Mediterranean Italian semen, using too the semen of champion Millennium (figure 10) on Buffalypso herd. Actually there are 535 farms, of these 249 are dairy farms: 94% are State farms, only 2. Afterwards other breeds have been imported from India, such as Murrah, Nili-Ravi, Surti, Nagpuri, Bhadawari, and Swamp Carabao were imported from Australia. Steve Bennet started on 1948 in the Caroni State farm to cross Bhadawari and Murrah on Jafarabadi and after with other breeds to create a triple purpose breed, meat, milk and draught for working in sugarcane farms, named Buffalypso (Buffalo x Calypso that is Caribe song). Buffalypso is very muscular, with deep thorax, black or brown color, strong and compact, short and curled horns (figure 11). Indian contract labourers used the males to haul sugarcane and the cows to provide milk for their 165 families and neighbours. Selection and crossbreeding among the original imported milk breed developed a specialized beef animal now commonly referred to as the Buffalypso, coming from the crossbreeding of the different imported Indians breed. Buffalypso from Trinidad However, since the late 1970s the use of Trinidad water buffaloes for meat as well as for milk production has been encouraged, not only in Trinidad but also throughout the Caribbean. In order to achieve this objective, the Ministry of Agriculture established a small milking herd at the Aripo Livestock Station during the early 1990s. The mean total lactation yield, averaged over all lactations, and based on once a day hand milking with the calf suckling the mother was 611. The average percentages for fat, protein, lactose, non fat solids, total solids, ash and Ca were 7. Today Buffalypso is considered as a dual purpose breed (milk and meat) and the population is 5,700 head (Rastogi, 2011). Different milk products are available in the market: yogurt, butter, ghee, mozzarella, queso blanco, 166 soft cheese (figure 12), dahi (figure 12) and paneer (cottage cheese), very used in Indian vegetarian dishes. Production systems are: extensive on rotation pastures with integration of sugar cane during dry season; semi-intensive, on pasture during day, closed during the night with integration of coco meals and sugar cane; intensive in corral or feed-lot for fattening male young bulls coming from pasture at 12 months until the slaughter weight of 400-500 kg later, fed concentrates and by products (Zava, 2011). No vaccinations, anti-parassitic, genealogical control nor animal recording have been applied with the risk of high inbreeding (Rosales, 2011). The milk production is about 3-5 liters per day, calving interval 380-420 days, live weight at 24-30 months is 450-570 kg. Now there are 10 000 buffaloes in East lands, with hot and humid subtropical climate. Some farms imported Mediterranean Italian semen to create dairy purpose animal (figure14), that produce until 9 liters milk for day in milking room: the milk is processed to produce mozzarella, ricotta, cream cheese, mascarpone with registers mark. Mediterranean x Jafarabadi on pasture of Brachiaria, Bolivia (Marco Zava photo, 2010) 168 9. The purpose is the meat production: the males are slaughtered at 24-28 months, without castration, sometimes treated with hormons. The calves are wained in DecemberJanuary at 10 months of age with 180-330 kg live weight. The beef price is the same for buffalo and for bovine but it is higher in winter (Zava, 2011). On 1976 Hugh Popenoe, Director of the Centre for Tropical Agriculture of Florida University, imported Carabao and Buffalypso buffaloes in Florida, to study the adaptability of buffalo species to water plants and difficult flood conditions of that land. Afterwards a lot of semen of Mediterranean Italian breed was imported, to increase rapidly the milk production for processing purposes. The total population currently in Australia is not exactly known but it is estimated to be around 70 000-200 000 head in February 2010, of what 60 000-120 000 swamp buffaloes in Northern Territory and 563 milking dairy buffaloes (Lemcke and Suarez, 2010). The Swamp feral population acts as a source of existent stock or replacement breeders for the controlled herd, while at the same time supplying some of the stock required for the current live export markets. Over the last years there has been a movement of buffaloes between states with small herds (up to 100 head) found scattered over all other states except Queensland (which at that time prohibited their farming, Lemcke, 2001). Crossbred calves River x Swamp were first produced in 1995 and were involved in performance 170 comparisons with purebred Swamp cows. A grading-up program has also been carried out with the 3 7 /4 and /8 progeny now available. The plan is to keep upgrading in this way in order to increase the number of purebreds available for distribution in Australia. Semen has been imported from milking herds from Italy and the first crossbred calves have been produced in vitro (Lemcke, 2001). During the trials it was found that buffaloes failed to increase their efficiency of utilization of grain above 30 percent of the total diet. Meat meal is no longer used in cattle feeding so an alternative is required; probably cottonseed meal is the most readily adaptable alternative. The most productive properties are those with a mixture of upland and floodplain terrain, and are capable of producing 400 kg Swamp buffalo at 2. Significant improvements in these parameters have been achieved, firstly by using improved pastures and fertilizers, and secondly by the use of crossbreeding with the River blood (Lemcke, 2001). The introduction of River genetics provided the improvement of meat production +40% growth rate increase in the F1 animal over the purebred Swamp progeny, reduced time to slaughter intervals and showed superior carcass characteristics (Lemcke and Suarez, 2010): the Italian crosses (figure 16,17) showed a great impact in comparison with Swamp growth rates by 86% for 200 days, 58% for 400 day and 56% for 600 day growth rate using least square means data; dressing percentage, eye muscle area were increased too; also of great significance are eating quality factors, particularly tenderness, which are the results of the faster growth rate of the crossbreds. Italian crosses are showing increases of milk components: 15% in fat, 20% in protein, 41% in lactose, and 21% in total milk yield (Lemcke and Suarez, 2010). Milk production characterization in a Water buffalo (Buffalypso) unit during a 4 year productive period under th tropical condition. Milk production, milk composition and meat production from buffaloes (Buffalypso) in Trinidad, West Indies.

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However symptoms 20 weeks pregnant purchase 2.5 mg oxybutynin fast delivery, the prevalence of infection in individual fiying fox populations may vary from year to year silicium hair treatment order genuine oxybutynin online, and a reliable method of predicting the high-risk period is not available 911 treatment center purchase oxybutynin amex. Index cases (the first confirmed cases) have typically been horses in paddocks or kept outside in areas that are attractive to fiying foxes symptoms e coli purchase oxybutynin with paypal. Ultrastructural treatment 360 order oxybutynin with paypal, molecular and phylogenetic studies Ultrastructural studies (Murray et al symptoms 8 days before period purchase 2.5mg oxybutynin visa. Nucleocapsids were 18 nm wide and exhibited a herringbone pattern with 5 nm periodicity. These features indicated that the virus was a member of the family Paramyxoviridae, possibly genus Paramyxovirus or Morbillivirus. Antisera from a range of paramyxoviruses, morbilliviruses and pneumoviruses failed to neutralize the virus, although very weak immunofiuorescent and protein immunoblot reactions to rinderpest antiserum were recorded (Murray et al. It was noted that the phylogenetic analysis suggested that the virus had not resulted from singleor multiple-point mutations from a closely related virus, and that emergence from a natural host was the most probable explanation of its origin (Murray et al. These differences included a larger genome size, the replacement of a highly conserved Significant zoonotic diseases identified in bats 69 sequence in the L protein gene, different genome end sequences, and other sequence and molecular features (Wang et al. The authors proposed Henipavirus as the new genus, with Hendra virus (see following) the type species and Nipah virus (see separate section) the second member. Thus the virus was renamed Hendra virus, after the location of the first known outbreak. Several other previously unknown members of the family Paramyxoviridae have been described in recent years. These include phocine distemper virus and cetacean morbillivirus (genus Morbillivirus), responsible for disease epidemics in marine mammals (Osterhaus et al. Tupaia and Salem viruses both share some sequence homology with HeV and NiV, but have features that preclude their inclusion as henipaviruses or morbilliviruses. Palau virus has subsequently been characterized as an orthoreovirus (Pritchard et al. There are two reported isolations of paramyxoviruses from bats prior to the description of HeV in fiying foxes in 1996: a sub-type of parainfiuenza virus type 2 from the fruit bat species Rousettus leschenaulti in India (Pavri, Singh and Hollinger, 1971); and Mapuera virus from another fruit bat species, Sturnira lilium, in Brazil (Henderson et al. Both of these belong to the genus Rubulavirus, but are unrelated to Menangle and Tioman viruses. However Mapuera virus is closely related to porcine rubulavirus (formerly La Piedad paramyxovirus), a novel paramyxovirus that caused serious disease in pigs in Mexico (Moreno-Lopez et al. Nipah virus History and impact NiV is the second novel paramyxovirus linked to fiying foxes. Unlike HeV in horses, NiV is highly infectious in pigs, with a high proportion of infected pigs being sub-clinically infected (Nor, Gan and Ong, 2000). NiV was first described following a major outbreak of disease in pigs and humans in peninsular Malaysia between September 1998 and April 1999, resulting in the death of 105 humans and the culling of more than 1 million pigs (Chua et al. Retrospective investigations suggest that NiV has been responsible for disease in pigs in peninsular Malaysia since late 1996, but the disease was not recognized as a new syndrome because the clinical signs were not markedly different from those of several endemic diseases, and because morbidity and mortality were not remarkable (Aziz et al. Following the Malaysian outbreak and its subsequent characterization, NiV has been recognized as the aetiologic agent in more than ten outbreaks of encephalitis in Bangladesh Significant zoonotic diseases identified in bats 71 and West Bengal, India since 2001. Outbreaks in Bangladesh have shown strong spatial and temporal clustering, with cases occurring in the western half of the country (the two Indian outbreaks occurred in West Bengal, near the Bangladesh border) and all cases occurring between November and April (Luby et al. NiV encephalitis outbreaks in Bangladesh have also included chains of human-to-human transmission, a marked distinction from the Malaysian outbreak (Gurley et al. To date, there have been more than 200 cases of NiV encephalitis in Bangladesh, with an average mortality rate of 71 percent, although the case fatality rate in some outbreaks exceeded 90 percent (Luby et al. Epidemiology, pathogenesis and clinical presentation Malaysia: the epidemic primarily affected pig and human populations, although horses, dogs and cats were also infected. The disease in pigs was highly contagious, and clinical disease was characterized by acute fever with respiratory and/or neurological involvement. Crude case fatality rate was low (< 5 percent), and a notably large proportion of infected pigs were asymptomatic (Nor, Gan and Ong, 2000). Sows primarily presented with neurological disease, and sows and boars sometimes died peracutely. In weaners and porkers a respiratory syndrome predominated, frequently accompanied by a harsh non-productive (loud barking) cough. It is unclear whether respiratory and neurological symptoms observed in suckling piglets were directly attributable to infection. Epidemiological evidence suggests that the movement of pigs was the primary means of spread among farms and regions (Nor, Gan and Ong, 2000). The primary mode of transmission on pig farms was believed to be via the respiratory route; later laboratory evidence provided support for this contention. The predominant clinical syndrome in humans was encephalitic rather than respiratory, with clinical signs including fever, headache, myalgia, drowsiness and disorientation, sometimes proceeding to coma within 48 hours (Chua et al. The initially high prevalence of infection in dogs in the endemic area during and immediately following the removal of pigs suggests that dogs readily acquired infection from infected pigs. The far lower antibody prevalence and restriction of infection to within 5 km of the endemic area suggests that NiV did not spread horizontally within dog populations (Field et al. The risk of natural infection in cats directly from pteropid bats appears to be low (Epstein et al. Bangladesh: Serological evidence suggests that Pteropus giganteus, the sole pteropid species on the Indian subcontinent, is a natural reservoir for NiV in Bangladesh and India (Hsu et al. These bats are abundant and widely distributed across the subcontinent (Bates and Harrison, 1997). There has been epidemiological evidence to suggest that cases in Bangladesh have been associated with contact with sick livestock, and direct bat-to-human transmission also appears to occur through the ingestion of date-palm sap, presumably contaminated with bat excreta (Luby et al. Disease ecology and natural reservoir Malaysian bats became a surveillance priority in determining the origins of the virus because laboratory evidence suggested a close relationship between HeV and NiV, and because fiying foxes had been shown to be a putative natural host of HeV. Neutralizing antibodies to NiV were found in 21 of 324 bats, from five of 14 species surveyed. Subsequently, NiV was isolated from urine collected from a sero-positive colony of P. By the time NiV had been identified as the causative agent in human outbreaks of encephalitis in Bangladesh, the link between henipaviruses and fiying foxes had been discovered. Bats, including 50 Pteropus giganteus, were screened for antibodies to NiV during an outbreak investigation in Meherpur and Nagaon districts in 2003. Some 42 percent (n = 80) were found to be sero-positive by serum-neutralization assay, further substantiating the hypothesis that pteropid bats were likely to be a natural reservoir for henipaviruses throughout their range (Epstein et al. Current research focuses on understanding the temporal and spatial dynamics of NiV in P. Early sero-epidemiological results indicate that NiV circulates widely in fiying foxes throughout Bangladesh (Homaira et al. Ultrastructural, molecular and phylogenetic studies Initial electron microscopic studies showed that the ultrastructure of NiV was consistent with that of viruses of the family Paramyxoviridae, and immunofiuorescence tests of infected cells suggested a virus related to HeV. Virus particles were pleiomorphic, ranging from 120 to 500 nm, and enveloped, with surface projections measuring 10 nm. NiV-infected cells reacted strongly with HeV antiserum, but not with antisera for other paramyxoviruses, including measles virus, respiratory syncytial virus and parainfiuenza 1 and 3. No reactivity was seen with other viruses, including herpes virus, enteroviruses and Japanese encephalitis virus (Chua et al. Cross-neutralization studies have shown at least a fourfold difference in neutralizing antibodies between HeV and NiV (Chua et al. Significant zoonotic diseases identified in bats 73 Later, more extensive nucleotide sequence studies found that the nucleo (N) protein, phosphor (P) protein and matrix (M) gene of NiV shared a 70 to 78 percent nucleotide homology with those of HeV, supporting the findings of others (see section on the History and impact of NiV) that HeV and NiV are phylogenetically closer to each other than to any other viruses in the subfamily Paramyxovirinae (Chua et al. Molecular characterization of full genomic sequences of NiV from humans in Malaysia and Bangladesh have shown that there is an overall nucleotide homology of 91. Amino acid homology is predicted to be higher (> 92 percent), particularly in the coding regions (Harcourt et al. In Thailand, many sequences from the NiV L gene have been obtained from pooled urine samples collected underneath large colonies of Pteropus lylei (Wacharaplusadee et al. Phylogenetic analysis shows considerable strain variation within a colony at the same point in time and over time. Because so few NiV isolates have been obtained from bats, few comparative data are available from the whole genome. Diagnostics this section draws primarily on the paper of Daniels, Ksiazek and Eaton (2001). It describes diagnostic methods for detecting virus, virus antigen or virus nucleotide sequence (evidence of current infection) and antibody (evidence of past infection). It also makes reference to appropriate diagnostic samples, gold standard tests and test limitations, and to test interpretation in bats. Virus isolation: Daniels, Ksiazek and Eaton (2001) comment that HeV grows well in Vero cells from a range of tissue specimens including brain, lung, kidney and spleen. They recommend the submission of a range of tissues (including spleen), noting that virus may clear from lung tissue early in an infection. The availability of a range of mono and polyclonal antisera means that test sensitivity and specificity can be tailored to testing objectives. The ability to select primer sets for various genes means that test sensitivity and specificity can be tailored to testing objectives. The technique can be used as a primary diagnostic tool to detect virus sequences in fresh or formalin-fixed tissue, and fixed or cerebrospinal fiuid, or as an adjunct to virus isolation for rapidly characterizing virus isolates. This issue can largely be addressed by appropriate laboratory design, personnel training and internal and external quality control programmes. Sera are incubated with live virus in microtitre plates to which Vero cells are added. Both require small volumes of sera, can be done quickly, and do not require high biocontainment. Test limitations for wildlife species Serologic tests specifically developed for diseases of wildlife are limited; serologic tests used in wildlife studies are commonly transposed from those for domestic species. The validity of such tests and the interpretation of their results can therefore be problematic. Gardner, Hietala and Boyce (1996) raise two fundamental points about the transposition of serologic tests to wildlife species. First they note that many tests have not been adequately evaluated in the domestic species for which they were developed, so data on inherent test sensitivity and specificity are lacking. Second, they argue that even if the test has been validated in domestic species, test characteristics should not be assumed to be the same in wildlife species, given the possible differences in pathogen strains, host responses and exposure to cross-reacting infections in wildlife species. First, while species-specific reagents are rarely available for wildlife species, this potential major impediment has been largely overcome by the development of protein A and/or G complexes, which are used as alternatives to secondary antibody in these tests. Second, although test sensitivity and specificity can be difficult and expensive to establish, relative values can be obtained through comparison with known positive and negative samples. Conclusion the available evidence suggests that Hendra and Nipah are ancient viruses, well adapted to their natural hosts, in whose populations they have long circulated. Current evidence points to multiple chiropteran host species, although the degree to which detections in non-pteropid species (except in Africa) are the result of incidental transmission is not clear. Further studies are needed to elucidate how widely henipaviruses circulate, both geographically and taxonomically. It appears that a wide range of mammalian hosts are susceptible to henipaviruses owing to their reliance on the ephrin B2 receptors for cell entry. Ephrin B2 receptors are highly conserved across mammalian taxa and found in many different tissue types, allowing viral entry via both respiratory and gastrointestinal routes. The close phylogenetic relationship between Hendra and Nipah viruses is consistent with a common progenitor virus. Epidemiological investigations into the 1994 equine morbillivirus outbreaks in Queensland, Australia. Neutralization assays for differential henipavirus serology using Bio-Plex Protein Array Systems. Full length genome sequence of Tioman virus, a novel paramyxovirus in the genus Rubulavirus, isolated from fruit bats in Malaysia. A fatal case of Hendra virus infection in a horse in north Queensland: clinical and epidemiological features. Characterization of Mapeura virus: structure, proteins and nucleotide sequence of the gene encoding nucleocapsid protein. Serological evidence of infection with Nipah virus in bats (order Chiroptera) in peninsular Malaysia. Recurrent zoonotic transmission of Nipah virus into humans, Bangladesh, 2001-2007. Characterization of a paramyxovirus isolated from the brain of a piglet in Mexico. Case-control study of risk factors for human infection with a novel zoonotic paramyxovirus, Nipah virus, during a 1998-1999 outbreak of severe encephalitis in Malaysia. Isolation of a new parainfiuenza virus from a frugivorous bat, Rousettus leschenaulti, collected at Poona, India. An apparently new virus (family Paramyxoviridae) infectious for pigs, humans and fruit bats. Identification and phylogenetic comparison of Salem virus, a novel paramyxovirus of horses. Investigation of a second focus of equine morbillivirus infection in coastal Queensland. Isolation and molecular characterisation of a novel cytopathogenic paramyxovirus from tree shrews.