Alicia Ines Arbaje, M.D., M.P.H., Ph.D.

• Director of Transitional Care Research
• Associate Professor of Medicine

https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/profiles/results/directory/profile/0018801/alicia-arbaje

A significant relationship was also found between number of treatment sessions and effect size (based on nine studies) antibiotics given for sinus infection uk buy generic clindamycin line, with more sessions associated with larger effect sizes at posttreatment treatment for recurrent uti in pregnancy quality clindamycin 150mg. All active treatments had the same content and duration of treatment (12 text-based modules across 12 weeks) antibiotics for acne depression order clindamycin 300 mg otc, but differed in terms of degree of clinician guidance and format (internet versus self-help book) bacteria gif order clindamycin 300mg without prescription. The main component of the treatments was systematic exposure to health anxiety-related situations or events infection control nurse purchase clindamycin 300 mg free shipping, in combination with response prevention antibiotics for extreme acne purchase genuine clindamycin on line. Participants in the clinician guided condition received correspondence over email from a designated clinician who provided feedback on homework tasks and general guidance as needed for progressing through treatment. Large between-group effect sizes were found for all active treatment conditions compared with waitlist control on the primary outcome measure of health anxiety. Large within-group treatment effects were demonstrated for all active conditions compared with waitlist at posttreatment and follow-up, with the largest effect for the clinician-guided condition and the smallest for bibliotherapy. The manualised metacognitive therapy intervention consisted of weekly 1-hour sessions. From baseline to posttreatment, all participants demonstrated significant improvements on measures of hypochondriacal symptom severity, anxiety, and depression. Participants received between six and 17 treatment sessions, across a range of 6 to 21 weeks. The mean age of participants in the treatment and comparison groups was 37 and 35. Treatment involved nine weekly 3-hour group therapy sessions, with an additional booster session 1 month after the final session. General levels of anxiety and depression did not differ between the groups at any time point. Follow-up data from three studies indicated that treatment gains were maintained 2 to 4 months posttreatment. The online intervention consisted of eight modules delivered over 12 weeks with contact via email to a designated clinician. Clinicians spent a median of 13 minutes per week per participant, providing feedback on homework assignments and general support throughout the intervention. Participants assigned to supportive therapy received unlimited access to a clinician over email. Clinicians spent a median of 6 minutes per participant per week responding to emails. Small to medium between-group effects were also demonstrated on secondary measures of depression and global functioning at posttreatment and follow-up in favour of the intervention group. The intervention consisted of eight weekly 45 to 60-minute therapy sessions delivered according to a manual. Participants completed a mean of 10 group and six individual therapy sessions over the intervention period. Large effect sizes were also demonstrated for secondary measures of depression and disability at posttreatment. In the current conditions such as chronic fatigue syndrome, fibromyalgia, and review, there was insufficient evidence to indicate that any of irritable bowel syndrome. Across studies, the mean number of sessions ranged from one to 13 over a period of 1 day to 9 months. In the current review, there was insufficient evidence to indicate that any of the remaining interventions were effective. Small to medium effects were found in favour of psychodynamic therapies at both posttreatment (based on seven studies) and follow-up (based on two studies). Based on data from 10 participants, treatment gains were maintained at follow-up for the intervention group. Participants received an average of 16 sessions (ranging from 0 to 35 sessions) over the 12-month period, with 51% of participants receiving 15 or more sessions. The mean age of participants included in the follow-up study was 26 years, and 70. Those in the intervention group attended a total of 40 x 90-minute psychoeducational group sessions across a 1-year period (approximately one session per week), as well as individual weekly 45?60 minute therapy sessions. For those who completed treatment, significant reductions were found from pre to post-treatment on depressive symptoms. Individuals who demonstrated improvements in mindfulness also showed significant improvements on frequency of experiencing symptoms of physical dissociation. Across studies, participants received a mean of nine therapy sessions (range = six to 15 sessions). Number of sessions or therapy format did not significantly impact on the effectiveness of the intervention. Improvements were also significant for measures of verbal memory, working memory, attention, and speed of processing, with small effect sizes across measures. The active control involved completion of a computerised cognitive training program targeting cognitive dysfunctions commonly encountered in patients with psychosis. Treatment effects were more pronounced for participants who attended four or more therapy sessions. Three studies included participants under 18 years of age, and the remaining studies comprised samples aged 15 and above (mean ages were generally greater than 20). The length of treatment varied across studies, ranging from a once-off 3-hour workshop to 18 sessions of therapy, delivered across a range of 4 weeks to 24 months. General functioning significantly improved and risk of relapse decreased in the family intervention groups compared with pooled controls, with medium effect sizes observed at posttreatment; however, these treatment gains were not maintained at follow-up. Study duration ranged from a single session to 5 years, with the median intervention duration being 12 weeks. Additionally, results suggest that psychoeducation promotes better social and global functioning and improves quality of life. The befriending intervention was delivered under the same conditions as the intervention group and consisted of engaging in conversation about everyday topics while avoiding discussion about symptoms and problems. However, the treatment effects observed in the first 2 years of treatment were no longer significant at 3 year follow-up based on results from the 148 participants who completed the assessment. Primary outcomes included participants? scores on the Dissociative Experiences Scale and Clinical Global Impression and Improvement Scale. Treatment was considered a success if patients experienced a 20% or more reduction on the Dissociative Experiences Scale or 30% or more reduction on the Clinical Global Impression and Improvement Scale posttreatment. The condition with weekly group sessions used the internet intervention in the context of group therapy and followed the content of the 10 modules in each therapy session. No significant differences were found at posttreatment or follow-up between the two active interventions. Both treatment conditions consisted of weekly 2-hour group therapy sessions delivered over a 12-week period. The supportive therapy condition controlled for nonspecific aspects of treatment by providing support while avoiding direct discussion of therapeutic strategies. Treatment gains were maintained at follow-up, and a small treatment effect became significant for the anxiety measure. Furthermore, compared with the control group, a significantly greater proportion of participants were considered treatment responders and recovered at posttreatment and follow-up. Both treatment conditions consisted of 12 weekly 2-hour group therapy sessions delivered over a period of 3 months. One review, however, questioned in combination with psychological therapy, is another consideration the robustness of findings due to methodological inconsistencies for young people with moderate to severe depression. The primary treatment outcome was calculated as the average of all depression measurements used within each study. The effect size was considered moderate for participants with mild to medium depressive symptoms. The authors, however, did not consider this finding to be robust due to small sample sizes and methodological inconsistencies. Treatment outcomes were measured as changes in self-rated and/or observer-rated depressive symptoms. The treatment outcome was based on the reduction in depressive symptoms on psychometrically validated measures from pre to post-treatment, and from pretreatment to follow-up. In their explanation of the discrepancy, the reviewers noted that the study with a very large effect included a comparatively small sample of adolescents who were excluded from mainstream education, limiting its generalisability to other populations. The primary treatment outcome was a reduction in depression rating from baseline to posttreatment. The secondary outcome, remission rate, was measured as a decrease in depression rating scores of greater than 50%. The primary outcome measure was a change in symptoms measured on a depression rating scale. Due to the broad nature of the review, the authors did not undertake further subanalyses of the data from studies that included an adolescent sample. There were 3 treatment phases: initial (sessions 1?5), middle (sessions 6?10), and termination (sessions 11?14). Treatment outcomes were remission percentage from pre to post-treatment, as well as change in depressive symptoms at posttreatment. Nevertheless, all interventions included is no response after 4 to 6 weeks of treatment. Adjunct family elements, suggesting that this is an important pharmacotherapy is seen as appropriate for moderate to consideration in the effective treatment of children with severe cases of bipolar depression. The primary outcome measures were parent-rated symptom severity and clinician-rated global functioning. In terms of global psychosocial functioning, there was no significant effect at posttreatment, but a small to medium effect at follow-up. Family-focused therapy consisted of 12 x 1-hour sessions across a period of 4 months (eight weekly, four biweekly), and the psychoeducation group had one or two sessions. Participants in the family-focused therapy group recovered from baseline mood (depressive and hypomanic) symptoms in an average of 13 weeks, significantly faster than the 21. The authors noted that the treatment effect was more pronounced in families with high expressed emotion. There were no between-group differences for time to improvement or illness recurrence, or the proportion of weeks with illness. In the intervention group, children and at least one parent attended 8 x 90-minute psychoeducation sessions. Further analysis was performed on the waitlist control group as they began receiving multifamily psychoeducational therapy after 12 months, and that group was reassessed at 18 months. The treatment effect did not attain statistical significance, which the authors speculate was due to the intervention requiring more than 6 months to be effective. The high levels of attrition may also have affected the treatment response for the waitlist control group. The intervention consisted of 10 x 90-minute weekly sessions as well as two booster sessions after 1 month and 3 months. A similarly large posttreatment effect size was reported for improvement in clinician-rated functioning attributed to the intervention. Treatment elements included rapport building, psychoeducation, fear and avoidance hierarchy development, cognitive restructuring, and a variety of exposure techniques. Further analysis of moderating variables indicated that the treatment was most effective for adolescents with low or moderate levels of fear and avoidance. The intervention was delivered across 11 x 50-minute weekly sessions and incorporated psychoeducation, cognitive restructuring, exposure techniques, skill review, and some parent involvement. Further treatment effects were found for measures of self-reported anxiety sensitivity, general anxiety, and depressive symptoms, all accompanied by large effect sizes. In this review, there was insufficient evidence to indicate that any of the remaining interventions were effective. Both treatments were maximised to 3 hours and manualised, but flexibly implemented. However, treatment groups were not more effective than being on a waitlist on the behavioural approach test, self-report, or parent-report measures posttreatment. Posttreatment, in-vivo exposure was superior to education support, and at the 6-month follow-up participants receiving in-vivo exposure continued to do better than did those in education support. The exposure treatment was delivered in a single session of up to 3 hours and incorporated a hierarchy of behavioural exercises in conjunction with cognitive therapy techniques. The psychoeducation program consisted of educational information and supportive therapy with the aim of enhancing self-efficacy. Furthermore, global functioning significantly improved for both treatment groups posttreatment. There were no significant between-group differences between the single-session exposure and psychoeducation interventions. Improvements with regard to behavioural avoidance and self-efficacy, but not functioning levels, were maintained at 1-year follow-up. In the current involvement of parents/carers, particularly for the treatment of review, there was insufficient evidence to indicate that any of young children. It is suggested that interventions consist of the remaining interventions were effective. Between-groups meta-analysis was conducted for studies with waiting list controls (10 studies), and pre?post analysis was conducted for studies with or without waiting list controls (13 studies). Each intervention consisted of 10 x 60 minute sessions and incorporated brief clinician support and feedback. A greater number of completed sessions was associated with better clinical improvement at 6 months? follow-up, but not at posttreatment. It is suggested that clinician indicate that any of the remaining interventions were effective. Recovery rates at follow-up were not significantly different between the intervention groups. Clinician-assessed symptoms indicated a larger effect than did self-report symptoms.

Furthermore antibiotic resistance grants purchase discount clindamycin, sexual objectification of women is ubiquitous in Western culture antibiotics for acne thrush cheap clindamycin line, and will likely take time and extensive effort to change (Tylka & Augustus-Horvath antibiotic ophthalmic ointment purchase online clindamycin, 2011) antibiotic guide purchase clindamycin canada. Therefore antibiotic lyme disease buy clindamycin on line, it is also promising that this technique might provide women with an individual-level strategy to buffer these persis tent societal-level influences antimicrobial treatments purchase 300 mg clindamycin fast delivery. Future studies could investigate, experimentally, whether focusing on body functionality can prevent the negative effects of exposure to sexual objectification. The divergence found in this study might be caused by the different aspects captured by each questionnaire. It could be that the Expand Your Horizon programme helped participants real ise that appearance is less important than body functionality, but that this change did not yet translate to improvements in habitual thoughts about their body. Future re search may elucidate these differences by including longer-term follow-up measure ments. Another important direction for future research will be to investigate the potential mechanisms and relationships that underlie the functionality-based approach to im proving body image. For example, given that a functionality-based focus on the body is antithetical? to self-objectification (Roberts & Waters, 2004; Webb et al. In fact, Tiggemann, Coutts, and Clark (2014) have shown that engaging in belly dancing (a form of dance that emphasises body functionality; Tiggemann et al. Another possi bility is that focusing on body functionality may directly increase body appreciation, which should foster positive feelings toward the body and decrease levels of self objectification; this is because body appreciation entails an unconditional approval of the body irrespective of perceived imperfections and an emphasis on body func tionality over appearance (Avalos & Tylka, 2006; Tylka, 2011; Wood-Barcalow et al. More broadly, it is also possible that, for women with a negative body image, writ ing about the functionality of their body could highlight a discrepancy between their beliefs. According to cognitive dissonance theory (Festinger, 1957), this discrepancy should create psychological discomfort, or cognitive dissonance. Conse quently, women with a negative body image might alter their cognitions in order to alleviate this cognitive dissonance, which could lead to improvements in body image. This same situation could also be explained from the perspective of self-perception theory (Bem, 1972): Women with a negative body image might infer their body-related attitudes based on their behaviour. Future studies that investi gate these and other potential relations and mechanisms will contribute to an improved understanding of body functionality and how to foster a healthy body image. In addition, we tested a group of women with a negative body image, employed an active control group, and only four participants dropped out of the study. The Expand Your Horizon programme is also relatively inexpensive and easy to administer (via the Internet), and requires less than one hour of participants? time. Further, the Expand Your Horizon programme encourages women to focus on what their body is capable of, rather than on perceived imperfections or negative feel ings and cognitions, and therefore contributes to a growing literature on positive body image (Halliwell, 2015; Tylka, 2011; Tylka & Wood-Barcalow, 2015; Webb et al. At pretest, we did not measure partici pants? expectations about the programme that they were randomised to . It could be that participants in the Expand Your Horizon programme expected greater improve ments in body image than participants in the control programme, who may have been less convinced that a creativity training programme could affect their body image. In addition, as with all studies that investigate an intervention programme, it is possible that our findings resulted in part from demand characteristics. The inclusion of an active control group should have reduced the impact of demand characteristics on our results, but future research may benefit from an active control programme with a theme that is more closely related to body image. Also, although we were able to check participants? writing assignment responses (to ensure that they complied with the in structions of their respective programme), the amount of time participants spent on the writing assignments was self-reported, so participants might have misreported this information. Future research should implement methods to register this information objectively. The Physical Condition Subscale only focuses on two areas of body functionality: physical capacities and health. To our knowledge, an instrument measuring satisfaction with body functionality in the broader sense. To progress research on body func tionality, it is important to create and validate such a questionnaire. Further, it will be important to consider improvements to the Expand Your Horizon programme that may increase the magnitude of its effects on body image. One possibility is to administer booster? writing assignments after completion of the initial programme. Lastly, we tested high-risk? women between the age of 18 and 30, so it is an unanswered question whether the programme will have similar effects in low-risk? samples, different age groups, or in men. Conclusion In sum, the current study provides support for a promising technique for improving body image and decreasing self-objectification namely, training women to focus on the functionality of their body. This study also provides the first experimental evidence that focusing on body functionality can increase body satisfaction and body apprecia tion and reduce self-objectification in women with a negative body image. Future re search should be directed at improving the Expand Your Horizon programme and in vestigating the mechanisms that underpin this approach. Writing Assignment #2 and Writing Assignment #3 are each delivered on subsequent days of the programme. The list of body functions should be made available to individuals during each writing assignment. We ask that individuals inform us if they would like to use and/or make changes to the Expand Your Horizon programme. In addition, when referencing the Expand Your Horizon programme, please use the reference provided below. Over the coming days, however, you are going to practice looking at your body in a different, more positive way. Instead of focusing on the appearance of your body, you are going to practice focusing on all of the things that your body can do. Before clicking on next,? take a few minutes now to contemplate the things that your body can do. Some of these functions may have already been on your mind, but you may not have thought of the other ones yet. Body Functions Related to Senses and Sensations Sight Taste Touch Hearing Smell Experience pleasure Feel emotion Sex drive Body Functions Related to Physical Activity and Movement Running Jumping Walking Stretching Flexibility Physical coordination Agility Balance Strength Stamina Energy level Reflexes Sports. To take another example, where would you be if you couldn?t communicate to others using your body. You may also find it challenging to think about your body in terms of functionality. Completing our writing tasks over the coming days will help you to accomplish this. Now, in this writing assignment, I would like you to describe in more detail what your body can do. In your writing, I would like you to take your time, really let go and explore the many different things that your body can do. You will focus on the other types of body functions in your second and third writing assignments. If you need inspiration, you can always refer back to the list of body functions (see attachment). There are only 3 rules for this writing assignment: (1) Write for at least 15 minutes (you can write for longer, if you like); (2) Once you have started writing, do not stop until at least 15 minutes have passed; (3) After you have finished the writing assignment, please reread what you have writ ten. Today, in your second writing assignment, you will focus only on body functions that are related to (1) health. Please take your time, really let go, and explore the functions that are related to these areas of body functionality. As in your first writing assignment, it is important that you reflect on what these different functions mean to you. These are the rules for this writing assignment: (1) Write for at least 15 minutes (you can write for longer, if you like); (2) Once you have started writing, do not stop until at least 15 minutes have passed; (3) After you have finished the writing assignment, please reread what you have writ ten. Lastly, your writing will be unique depending on your own body There are no right or wrong answers. Today, in your final writing assignment, you will focus only on body functions that are related to (1) self-care and daily routines. Once again, I would like you to take your time, really let go, and explore the body functions that are related to these areas of body functionality. As always, you may refer back to the list of body functions if you need inspiration (see attachment). These are the rules for the writing assignment: (1) Write for at least 15 minutes (you can write for longer, if you like); (2) Once you have started writing, do not stop until at least 15 minutes have passed; (3) After you have finished the writing assignment, please reread what you have writ ten. Remember that your writing will be completely confidential and anonymous, and that you do not need to worry about spelling, sentence structure, or grammar. Additionally, the covariation bias was not explained by differences in how women interpreted the social feedback (the facial stimuli). For example, individuals with negative body evaluation may demonstrate various distortions in cognitive processing, such as dichotomous thinking. In turn, distortions in cognitive processing may serve to reinforce and maintain negative body evaluation (Williamson, White, York-Crowe, & Stewart, 2004). Likewise, cognitive-behavioural perspectives propose that interpersonal experiences play a crucial role in shaping body evaluation (Cash, 2011). Social feedback ranging from implicit body language and gaze, to explicit comments and teasing, has the power to make individuals feel dissatisfied with their body (for details, see Carlson Jones, 2011; Cash & Fleming, 2002a; Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997; Tantleff-Dunn & Lind ner, 2011). In addition, negative body evaluation may also cause individuals to behave in ways that actually elicit negative social feedback from others. In the present study, we sought to integrate the domains of cognitive processing and interpersonal experiences with regard to body evaluation. In particular, we investi gated the role of negative body evaluation on covariation bias with regard to interper sonal experiences, which has not been investigated before. Covariation bias is a distortion in cognitive processing whereby an individual over estimates the contingency between a certain stimulus and an aversive outcome, even when in reality the contingency is absent or is correlated in the opposite direction (Chapman & Chapman, 1967). In the field of psychopathology, covariation bias has most often been studied with regard to anxiety. For example, experimental studies have shown that individuals with spider phobia overestimate the association between images of spiders and an electric shock. Further more, there is also evidence to suggest that individuals with social anxiety disorder overestimate the relation between social stimuli. Re gardless of the context in which it is studied, covariation bias may have a direct and powerful influence on confirming danger expectations, enhancing fear, and maintain ing psychological distress (De Jong, van den Hout, & Merckelbach, 1995; Hirsh & Clark, 2004). Similar to covariation bias in individuals with social anxiety dis order, it could be that individuals with a negative body evaluation overestimate the relation between their own body (the stimulus) and negative social feedback (the aver sive outcome). Further, this covariation bias could be an additional distortion in cogni tive processing that affects body evaluation, one that may influence how individuals perceive their interpersonal experiences and thus how individuals feel about their body. Images of faces are commonly used to simulate social feedback in re search about social anxiety (Hirsch & Clark, 2004) and have been shown to produce corresponding physiological responses in participants. This type of estimate, in which participants estimate the frequency that a stimulus. Reflecting the proposed covariation bias, we hypothesised that women with a more negative body evaluation would estimate a higher level of negative social feedback for their own body. We included the additional stimuli (photos of the control woman and of the neutral object) to control for the selectivity of the covariation bias. In addition, we recorded how positively or negatively women rated the social feedback stimuli to test whether body evaluation also predicted the interpretation of the stimuli. Method Participants Participants were 65 women aged between 18 and 30 years (M = 21. A power analysis using G*Power (Faul, Erdfelder, Lang, & Buchner, 2007) showed that the power achieved by this sample size was. Participants received the following information on the computer screen: (a) in one of four quadrants they would see a photo of themselves, a photo of another woman, or a photo of an object; (b) as soon as they saw the photo, they should click on it as quickly as possible; (c) after they clicked on the photo, a group of portrait photos would briefly appear; and (d) Steps (a) to (c) would be repeated until they reached the end of the computer task. The photos for Step (a) were three full-body photos of the participant, three full body photos of a control woman, and three photos of a neutral object. The control woman was a female university student of average build, dressed in a black t-shirt and pants. A standing lamp was chosen as the neutral object because it roughly resembled a human shape. The portrait photos for Step (c) were chosen from the NimStim Facial Stimuli Set (Tottenham et al. There were portrait photos signalling negative (angry, mouth closed), posi tive (happy, mouth closed), and neutral (mouth closed) social feedback for each man and woman (54 portrait photos total). The portrait photos were arranged in a 4 x 3 matrix, which was presented for 400ms per trial (Baccus, Baldwin, & Packer, 2004). The matrix for each trial was different because the portrait photos that composed the matrices were randomised per participant. However, for each matrix the following rules were met: (a) there was an equal proportion of negative, positive, and neutral social feedback; (b) 50% of the portrait photos were of female faces; and (c) portrait photos could only appear once in each matrix. So, each matrix consisted of 12 portrait photos that were of six different women (two angry, two happy, two neutral) and six different men (two angry, two happy, two neutral). Each portrait photo was presented an equal number of times across the computer task. An exam ple of these items is, All in all, how many (%) of the portrait photos were positive (smiling) after the presentation of the photos of your own body? As suggested by Cash (2000), we averaged the normalised Z-scores of these two subscales, with higher scores reflecting more posi tive body evaluation. The Appearance Evaluation subscale and the Body Areas Satisfac tion subscale evidenced good internal consistency (? In the current sample, the internal consistency for the items of these two subscales together was? The item scores are averaged, with higher scores reflecting a more positive state body evaluation. For each item, only the first and last response options were labelled; the five response options in between were simply numbered. An example item is Right now I feel? where participants could choose a response option from 1 = extremely dissatisfied with my physical appearance to 7 = extremely satisfied with my physical appearance (response options two to six were numbered but unlabelled). Participants rated each of the 54 portrait photos that appeared in the computer task based on how they thought each person looked, using a 7-point scale (1 = very angry to 7 = very happy).

What type of questions can psychologists answer that philosophers might not be able to answer as completely or as accurately? Explain why you think psychologists can answer these questions better than philosophers can antibiotic wipes cheap 150 mg clindamycin. Choose one of the major questions of psychology and provide some evidence from your own experience that supports one side or the other antibiotics omnicef generic clindamycin 150 mg otc. Choose two of the fields of psychology discussed in this section and explain how they differ in their approaches to understanding behavior and the level of explanation at which they are focused bacteria yersinia enterocolitica generic clindamycin 300 mg mastercard. The spandrels of San Marco and the Panglossian paradigm: A critique of the adaptationist programme antibiotics for dogs for sale generic 150 mg clindamycin overnight delivery. Unconscious cerebral initiative and the role of conscious will in voluntary action antibiotics for acne cause weight gain buy clindamycin 150 mg fast delivery. On the inference of personal authorship: Enhancing experienced agency by priming effect information antibiotic resistance lab high school buy discount clindamycin on-line. Effects of subliminal priming of self and God on self attribution of authorship for events. The cognitive neuroscience paradigm: A unifying metatheoretical framework for the science and practice of clinical psychology. Tightness-looseness revisited: Some preliminary analyses in Japan and the United States. Most psychologists work in research laboratories, hospitals, and other field settings where they study the behavior of humans and animals. Some psychologists are researchers and others are practitioners, but all psychologists use scientific methods to inform their work. The hindsight bias leads us to think that we could have predicted events that we could not actually have predicted. Employing the scientific method allows psychologists to objectively and systematically understand human behavior. Psychologists study behavior at different levels of explanation, ranging from lower biological levels to higher social and cultural levels. The same behaviors can be studied and explained within psychology at different levels of explanation. The first psychologists were philosophers, but the field became more objective as more sophisticated scientific approaches were developed and employed. Some of the most important historical schools of psychology include structuralism, functionalism, behaviorism, and psychodynamic psychology. Cognitive psychology, evolutionary psychology, and social-cultural psychology are some important contemporary approaches. Some of the basic questions asked by psychologists, both historically and currently, include those about the relative roles of nature versus nurture in behavior, free will versus determinism, accuracy versus inaccuracy, and conscious versus unconscious processing. Psychological phenomena are complex, and making predictions about them is difficult because they are multiply determined at different levels of explanation. Research has found that people are frequently unaware of the causes of their own behaviors. There are a variety of available career choices within psychology that provide employment in many different areas of interest. The results of psychological research are relevant to problems such as learning and memory, homelessness, psychological disorders, family instability, and aggressive behavior and violence. Psychological research is used in a range of important areas, from public policy to driver safety. Board of Education, 1954; Fiske, Bersoff, [1] Borgida, Deaux, & Heilman, 1991), as well as court procedure, in the use of lie detectors [2] during criminal trials, for example (Saxe, Dougherty, & Cross, 1985). Psychological research [3] helps us understand how driver behavior affects safety (Fajen & Warren, 2003), which methods of educating children are most effective (Alexander & Winne, 2006; Woolfolk-Hoy, [4] [5] 2005), how to best detect deception (DePaulo et al. For instance, biopsychologists study how nerves conduct impulses from the receptors in the skin to the brain, and cognitive psychologists investigate how different types of studying influence memory for pictures and words. There is no particular reason to examine such things except to acquire a better knowledge of how these processes occur. Applied research is research that investigates issues that have implications for everyday life and provides solutions to everyday problems. Applied research has been conducted to study, among many other things, the most effective methods for reducing depression, the types of advertising campaigns that serve to reduce drug and alcohol abuse, the key predictors of managerial success in business, and the indicators of effective government programs, such as Head Start. Basic research and applied research inform each other, and advances in science occur more [7] rapidly when each type of research is conducted (Lewin, 1999). For instance, although research concerning the role of practice on memory for lists of words is basic in orientation, the results could potentially be applied to help children learn to read. The results of psychological research are reported primarily in research articles published in scientific journals, and your instructor may require you to read some of these. The research reported in scientific journals has been evaluated, critiqued, and improved by scientists in the field through the process of peer review. In this book there are many citations to original research articles, and I encourage you to read those reports when you find a topic interesting. Most of these papers are readily available online through your college or university library. It is only by reading the original reports that you will really see how the research process works. Some of the most important journals in psychology are provided here for your information. Psychological Journals the following is a list of some of the most important journals in various subdisciplines of psychology. The research articles in these journals are likely to be available in your college library. You should try to read the primary source material in these journals when you can. To really understand psychology, you must also understand how and why the research you are reading about was conducted and what the collected data mean. Learning about the principles and practices of psychological research will allow you to critically read, interpret, and evaluate research. In addition to helping you learn the material in this course, the ability to interpret and conduct research is also useful in many of the careers that you might choose. For instance, advertising and marketing researchers study how to make advertising more effective, health and medical researchers study the impact of behaviors such as drug use and smoking on illness, and computer scientists study how people interact with computers. Furthermore, even if you are not planning a career as a researcher, jobs in almost any area of social, medical, or mental health science require that a worker be informed about psychological research. Social science research on trial: Use of sex stereotyping research in Price Waterhouse v. Describe the principles of the scientific method and explain its importance in conducting and interpreting research. Differentiate laws from theories and explain how research hypotheses are developed and tested. Discuss the procedures that researchers use to ensure that their research with humans and with animals is ethical. Psychologists aren?t the only people who seek to understand human behavior and solve social problems. Philosophers, religious leaders, and politicians, among others, also strive to provide explanations for human behavior. But psychologists believe that research is the best tool for understanding human beings and their relationships with others. Rather than accepting the claim of a philosopher that people do (or do not) have free will, a psychologist would collect data to empirically test whether or not people are able to actively control their own behavior. The statements made by psychologists are empirical, which means they are based on systematic collection and analysis of data. The Scientific Method All scientists (whether they are physicists, chemists, biologists, sociologists, or psychologists) are engaged in the basic processes of collecting data and drawing conclusions about those data. The methods used by scientists have developed over many years and provide a common framework for developing, organizing, and sharing information. The scientific method is the set of assumptions, rules, and procedures scientists use to conduct research. In addition to requiring that science be empirical, the scientific method demands that the procedures used be objective, or free from the personal bias or emotions of the scientist. The scientific method proscribes how scientists collect and analyze data, how they draw conclusions from data, and how they share data with others. These rules increase objectivity by placing data under the scrutiny of other scientists and even the public at large. Because data are reported objectively, other scientists know exactly how the scientist collected and analyzed the data. Most new research is designed to replicate?that is, to repeat, add to , or modify?previous research findings. The scientific method therefore results in an accumulation of scientific knowledge through the reporting of research and the addition to and modifications of these reported findings by other scientists. Laws and Theories as Organizing Principles One goal of research is to organize information into meaningful statements that can be applied in many situations. Principles that are so general as to apply to all situations in a given domain of inquiry are known as laws. But because laws are very general principles and their validity has already been well established, they are themselves rarely directly subjected to scientific test. A theory is an integrated set of principles that explains and predicts many, but not all, observed relationships within a given domain of inquiry. One example of an important theory in psychology is the stage theory of cognitive development proposed by the Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget. The theory states that children pass through a series of cognitive stages as they grow, each of which must be mastered in succession before movement to the next cognitive stage can occur. This is an extremely useful theory in human development because it can be applied to many different content areas and can be tested in many different ways. Second, they are parsimonious, meaning they provide the simplest possible account of those outcomes. It can account for developmental changes in behavior across a wide variety of domains, and yet it does so parsimoniously?by hypothesizing a simple set of cognitive stages. The stage theory of cognitive development is falsifiable because the stages of cognitive reasoning can be measured and because if research discovers, for instance, that children learn new tasks before they have reached the cognitive stage hypothesized to be required for that task, then the theory will be shown to be incorrect. Rather, theories are each limited in that they make accurate predictions in some situations or for some people but not in other situations or for other people. As a result, there is a constant exchange between theory and data: Existing theories are modified on the basis of collected data, and the new modified theories then make new predictions that are tested by new data, and so forth. The Research Hypothesis Theories are usually framed too broadly to be tested in a single experiment. Therefore, scientists use a more precise statement of the presumed relationship among specific parts of a theory?a research hypothesis?as the basis for their research. A research hypothesis is a specific and falsifiable prediction about the relationship between or among two or more variables, where a variable is any attribute that can assume different values among different people or across different times or places. The research hypothesis states the existence of a relationship between the variables of interest and the specific direction of that relationship. For instance, the research hypothesis Using marijuana will reduce learning? predicts that there is a relationship between a variable using marijuana? and another variable called learning. Conceptual variables are abstract ideas that form the basis of research hypotheses. Sometimes the conceptual variables are rather simple?for instance, age,? gender,? or weight. For instance, the conceptual variable participating in psychotherapy? could be represented as the measured variable number of psychotherapy hours the patient has accrued? and the conceptual variable using marijuana? could be assessed by having the research participants rate, on a scale from 1 to 10, how often they use marijuana or by administering a blood test that measures the presence of the chemicals in marijuana. Psychologists use the term operational definition to refer to a precise statement of how a conceptual variable is turned into a measured variable. The relationship between conceptual and measured variables in a research hypothesis is diagrammed in Figure 2. The conceptual variables are represented within circles at the top of the figure, and the measured variables are represented within squares at the bottom. The two vertical arrows, which lead from the conceptual variables to the measured variables, represent the operational definitions of the two variables. The arrows indicate the expectation that changes in the conceptual variables (psychotherapy and anxiety in this example) will cause changes in the corresponding measured variables. The measured variables are then used to draw inferences about the conceptual variables. The research hypothesis is that more psychotherapy will be related to less reported anxiety. As you read through this list, note that in contrast to the abstract conceptual variables, the measured variables are very specific. First, more specific definitions mean that there is less danger that the collected data will be misunderstood by others. Second, specific definitions will enable future researchers to replicate the research. Physicists are concerned about the potentially harmful outcomes of their experiments with nuclear materials. Biologists worry about the potential outcomes of creating genetically engineered human babies. Medical researchers agonize over the ethics of withholding potentially beneficial drugs from control groups in clinical trials.

The measure was also found to correlate with daily consumption of alcohol and lifetime use of alcohol antibiotics for breeding dogs purchase clindamycin with mastercard, social consequences from drinking virus removal mac cheap 150mg clindamycin overnight delivery, prior treatment for alcohol abuse antibiotic with metallic taste purchase clindamycin us, use of alcohol to change mood and feelings of guilt over drinking (Skinner & Horn fungal infection clindamycin 300mg visa, 1984) bacteria jacuzzi order clindamycin on line. Ross and colleagues (1990) reported that a cut-off score of 9 was associated with sensitivity of 91% and specificity of 82% in identifying alcohol abuse or dependence disorders in a primarily male sample bacteria pylori order clindamycin with american express. A study with homeless women found a cut-off point of 8 to be optimal for mild/moderate dependence, while scores greater than 15 indicated severe dependence (Chantarujikapong, Smith, & Fox, 1997). The tool has also been used in psychiatric population samples (Bischof, Rumpf, Meyer, Hapke, & John, 2005; Petrakis et al. Exploratory factor analyses revealed a three factor solution best described the data accounting for 57% of the variance in the larger item set. Scoring, administration and expertise required the scale is dichotomously scored as yes/no? and no special training is required to use the scale. The scale is self completed by the client and takes less than 10 minutes to complete. It has been shown to have good psychometric properties for alcohol and opiates but only limited findings concerning its psychometric properties for measuring the severity of dependence on other illicit substances exist. It has been found to be a comparatively good measure of alcohol dependence in a youth population when administered online, with good internal consistency and test retest correlation statistics (Thomas & McCambridge, 2008). It has also been used among Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders in research studies (Schlesinger et al. Respondents are instructed to answer the questions about their substance use in the past week and to tick the relevant response. Each of the items is scored on a never? (0), sometimes? (1), often? (2) and nearly always? (3) scale, yielding a maximum score of 30. The internal consistency of the four sub-scales was assessed for alcohol, cocaine, heroin, cannabis and sedative use. Test-retest reliability was found to be generally good to excellent for alcohol, heroin, cocaine and sedatives; but moderate for cannabis (Miele et al. Internal consistency, diagnostic concordance, and concurrent validity results were comparable to the test-retest findings. Client groups As explained above, initial verification studies were conducted with a variety of population groups but its utility in an Australian context has not been systematically explored. However, it was designed to be administered by clinicians with a post-graduate degree and clinical experience with patients with substance abuse or mental disorders. This results in each substance having four sum scores for usual severity, worst severity, total number of days symptom occurred and total number of days symptom at worst severity. Severity of dependence was also influenced by route of drug administration, with heroin smokers having significantly lower dependence scores than those who injected. The scale has been found to demonstrate high levels of internal consistency and strong construct and concurrent validity in this population. These authors suggested, however, that a cut-off score of 4 was optimal for use as an indicator of cannabis dependence. Others have reported this cut-off score to also be optimal for alcohol dependence (Lawrinson, Copeland, Gerber, & Gilmour, 2007). The tool has been translated (and back translated) into Vietnamese in a Sydney study of heroin users (Swift et al. Each item is scored on a four-point scale, and no specific training is required for use of the scale. Drug and Alcohol Severity Screening, Assessment and Outcome Measures 153 A Review of Screening, Assessment and Outcome Measures for Drug and Alcohol Settings Craving measures There are limited measures designed specifically to measure craving and fewer still that measure craving generally across all substances. The majority have been aimed at assessing cocaine craving specifically and many have been insufficiently evaluated to warrant strong recommendation across all groups. Two versions exist: the Now version which measures current craving for cocaine, and the General version measuring average craving over the preceding week. Examination of item content, correlations of factors across versions, and external correlates of the factors suggested that both versions were represented by the same hierarchical factor structure. The endpoints of the scale are labeled strongly disagree? (1) and strongly agree? (7). Craving Measures 155 A Review of Screening, Assessment and Outcome Measures for Drug and Alcohol Settings Weiss Cocaine Craving Questionnaire An identically named Cocaine Craving Questionnaire created by Weiss and colleagues (1995; 1997) consisted of only 3-5 questions to measure different aspects of cocaine craving: 1) current intensity, 2) intensity during the previous 24 hours, 3) frequency, 4) responsiveness to drug-related conditioned stimuli, and 5) imagined likelihood of use if in a setting with access to drugs. Please imagine yourself in the environment in which you previously used drugs and/or alcohol. If you were in this environment today, what is the likelihood that you would use cocaine? Please rate how strong your urges are for cocaine when something in the environment reminds you of it. An amphetamine version of the 3-item Cocaine Craving Scale has also been developed (Shearer, in press). Availability/cost the Cocaine Craving Questionnaire is outlined above, and scoring below. Craving Measures 156 A Review of Screening, Assessment and Outcome Measures for Drug and Alcohol Settings Scoring, administration and expertise required No training is required for the use of the scale and it takes less than 5 minutes to complete. Response options ranged from 0 for no desire/likelihood of use? to 9 for strong desire/likelihood of use. The subscales were found to have adequate internal consistencies, low to moderate positive intercorrelations and were significantly correlated with marijuana use history and a wide range of single item measures of craving. Each item is rated on a seven-point Likert-type scale from strongly disagree? to strongly agree. The first three questions are centered on the frequency, intensity, and duration of thoughts about drinking. The fourth question asks the individual to rate his/her ability to resist drinking if alcohol is available. The final question asks the subject to rate his/her overall average craving for alcohol during the previous week. Additional analyses revealed that there were significant differences in craving scores during the initial 3 weeks of the trial among those who did and those who did not relapse during weeks 3-12 indicating good predictive validity (Flannery et al. However, it has been used in both inpatient and outpatient care and in an Australian context (Flannery et al. Scoring, administration and expertise required Each question is scaled from 0 to 6. It can be administered without training and takes less than 5 minutes to administer, score and interpret. Craving Measures 159 A Review of Screening, Assessment and Outcome Measures for Drug and Alcohol Settings Conclusion It is important to stress that the list above is not exhaustive but it nevertheless aims to provide a useful review of the available tools which have utility for screening, assessment and outcome measurement across mental health, D&A and general health/social functioning. The author was asked to review the measures in terms of their psychometric properties, applicability and ease of use across a range of settings by a range of professionals as well as availability and cost. Conclusion 160 A Review of Screening, Assessment and Outcome Measures for Drug and Alcohol Settings References Abbott, R. The relationship between childhood traumatic experiences and gang-involved delinquent behavior in adolescent boys. Reliability and validity of the opiate treatment index among opioid users in the United Kingdom. Who should collect Opiate Treatment Index data in opiate treatment outcome monitoring: Clinic staff or researchers? Psychometric properties of seven self-report measures of posttraumatic stress disorder in college students with mixed civilian trauma exposure. Screening properties of questionnaires and laboratory tests for the detection of alcohol abuse or dependence in a general practice population. Ethnic differences among a community cohort of individuals with dual diagnosis in South London. Prospective study of hopelessness in first episode psychotic patients: Psychometric characteristics of the Beck Hopelessness Scale in this group. References 161 A Review of Screening, Assessment and Outcome Measures for Drug and Alcohol Settings Akin, A. Temperament, substance use and psychopathology in a prisoner population: implications for treatment, 42, 969-975. New scales to assess change in the Addiction Severity Index for the opioid, cocaine and alcohol dependent. Validity of the Eating Attitudes Test: A study of Mexican eating disorders patients. Stages of recovery instrument: development of a measure of recovery from serious mental illness. Interrater reliability of the Camberwell Assessment of Need Short Appraisal Schedule. The experience of recovery from schizophrenia: towards an empirically-validated stage model. References 162 A Review of Screening, Assessment and Outcome Measures for Drug and Alcohol Settings Andrews, G. Psychometric properties of the 42-item and the 21-item versions of the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales in clinical groups and a community sample. Practice guideline for the treatment of patients with substance use disorders: Second edition. Assessing substance use in multiproblem patients: reliability and validity of the Addiction Severity Index in a mental hospital population. Pediatric emergency department suicidal patients: Two-site evaluation of suicide ideators, single attempters, and repeat attempters. Do the Health of the Nation Outcome Scales predict outcome in the elderly mentally ill? References 163 A Review of Screening, Assessment and Outcome Measures for Drug and Alcohol Settings Ashaye, O. A comparison of older longstay psychiatric and learning disability inpatients using the Health of the Nation Outcome Scales. National Outcomes and Casemix Collection: Overview of Clinical Measures and Data Items. Short communication: Detecting depression after pregnancy: the validity of the K10 and K6 in Burkina Faso. Randomized controlled trial of brief cognitive-behavioural interventions among regular users of amphetamine. Evaluation of a motivational interview for substance use within psychiatric in-patient services. Assessment of the Life Skills Profile and the Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale as predictors of the length of psychiatric hospitalization. References 164 A Review of Screening, Assessment and Outcome Measures for Drug and Alcohol Settings Barker-Collo, S. Culture and validity of the Symptom Checklist-90-Revised and Profile of Mood States in a New Zealand student sample. Reliability generalization of scores on the Spielberger State-Trait Anxiety Inventory. Use of a modified version of the Opiate Treatment Index with amphetamine users: Validation and pilot evaluation of a prescribing service. Prevalence of body dysmorphic disorder symptoms and associated clinical features among Australian university students. Effects of brief training on application of the Global Assessment of Functioning Scale. Negative symptoms are associated with less alcohol use, craving, and "high" in alcohol dependent patients with schizophrenia. Evaluating changes in health status: Reliability and responsiveness of five generic health status measures in workers with musculoskeletal disorders. Relationship between hopelessness and ultimate suicide: A replication with psychiatric outpatients. Psychometric properties of the Beck Depression Inventory: Twenty five years of evaluation. References 165 A Review of Screening, Assessment and Outcome Measures for Drug and Alcohol Settings Beck, J. The Impact of Event Scale-Revised: Psychometric properties in a sample of motor vehicle accident survivors. Alcohol use among Swedes and a psychometric evaluation of the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test. Can sociodemographic and clinical variables predict the quality of life of outpatients with major depression? The Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test for detecting at-risk drinking: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Excessive drinking and other problem behaviours among 14-16 year old schoolchildren. Impairment in the epidemiological measurement of childhood psychopathology in the community. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 29(5), 796-803. Influence of psychiatric comorbidity in alcohol dependent subjects in a representative population survey on treatment utilization and natural recovery. References 166 A Review of Screening, Assessment and Outcome Measures for Drug and Alcohol Settings Bohn, M. Analysis of the psychometric properties of the Spanish version of the Beck Depression Inventory in Argentina. Posttraumatic stress symptom severity predicts marijuana use coping motives among traumatic event-exposed marijuana users.

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